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Yes—you can run an AI coding agent without handing it your whole machine or putting it in a container. The dependable approach is layered: launch it as a dedicated non-root user, present a restricted filesystem view, add Landlock rules for paths, filter system calls with seccomp-bpf, and place outbound traffic in a network namespace or policy proxy. Keep API keys outside the process and release short-lived credentials through a task-specific broker. Each layer covers a different failure mode; no single sandbox switch is a complete security boundary.
This guide shows how to assemble those controls, what each platform supports, how to test that enforcement is actually active, and when a stronger runtime such as gVisor or a supervisor-mediated design is warranted.
What does an OS-level sandbox protect when an AI agent runs without containers?
An OS-level sandbox constrains an ordinary host process instead of packaging it in a container. The agent still uses the host kernel, but the operating system limits which files, system calls, processes and network destinations it can reach. That is useful for coding agents because a generated script, package-install hook, language-server extension or MCP server runs with the same authority the agent has.
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- Identity and privilege: a dedicated unprivileged account starts the agent, with unnecessary Linux capabilities removed.
- Filesystem view: a separate mount view, often created with bubblewrap, hides unrelated paths before Landlock adds deny rules.
- System calls: a workload-specific seccomp-bpf profile rejects dangerous or unnecessary kernel interfaces.
- Network: a network namespace or egress proxy denies traffic by default and permits only approved destinations.
- Credentials: keys stay outside the agent and are brokered only for an approved request.
- Process coverage: terminal children, build scripts, package managers, language servers and MCP servers inherit the same restrictions.
These layers are complementary. Landlock cannot compensate for a process that is already privileged, and a filesystem sandbox does not stop data exfiltration over an unrestricted network.
How should the controls be composed?
Apply restrictions in an order that prevents a partially configured process from doing useful work with excessive privilege.
1. Start with a dedicated identity
Create a service account used only for agent jobs. Do not run the agent as root, and remove capabilities it does not need before any tool starts. In particular, avoid combining root or CAP_SYS_ADMIN with new namespaces while leaving seccomp, Landlock or a mandatory access-control policy absent. ChromiumOS security guidance treats that combination as a serious warning sign because it can turn a nominal sandbox into a privilege path.
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2. Construct a restricted filesystem view
Use a separate mount view to expose the project and the minimum runtime paths. Bubblewrap is a common launcher for this job on Linux; it can bind the project read/write, expose selected system directories read-only, and provide a temporary directory without revealing the rest of the host.
Mount isolation is a visibility control, not a complete authorization policy. Add Landlock rules after the view is created. The Linux kernel documentation describes Landlock as scoped access control for unprivileged processes; it only adds restrictions to existing permissions, so it cannot grant access the account does not already possess.
3. Filter system calls for the actual workload
Apply a seccomp-bpf profile tailored to the language runtimes and tools the agent will execute. Start from a deny-by-default design where practical, then allow the calls demonstrated by a test suite. A profile that is broad enough to run arbitrary binaries is easier to deploy but provides less protection.
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Some workloads are difficult to constrain. Native build systems, debuggers and applications using interfaces such as ioctl or io_uring may need exceptions. gVisor’s documentation highlights this compatibility problem: the more interfaces an application requires, the harder it is to make a narrow syscall profile without breaking legitimate work.
4. Isolate and mediate the network
Do not assume that enabling a process sandbox blocks outbound traffic. VS Code’s sandbox documentation explicitly separates sandboxing from network policy. Put the agent in a network namespace with no route, or force all egress through a proxy that implements an allowlist. Permit package registries, source-control hosts or internal APIs only when the task needs them, and log every denied request.
A proxy is preferable when you need destination-level policy, request logging or credential injection. A disconnected namespace is safer for tasks that can run entirely on local files.
5. Keep credentials outside the process
Environment variables are not a credential vault. NVIDIA’s OpenShell documentation notes that process sandboxes do not isolate environment variables; a child process can inherit or print them. Do not place long-lived API keys, cloud tokens, signing keys or personal SSH credentials in the agent environment.
Instead, use a broker or supervisor that holds the real secret and releases a short-lived, task-scoped capability only after an approved request. The agent should receive the minimum operation and destination it needs, not a reusable account credential. Revoke the capability when the task ends.
6. Cover every child process
The agent is only as confined as its least-confined child. Verify that shell commands, package managers, compilers, test runners, language servers, browser helpers and MCP servers are launched inside the same mount, Landlock, seccomp and network boundary. A built-in tool that bypasses the launcher, or a helper started through a separate service manager, can silently restore host access.
What Linux and WSL2 prerequisites are required?
On Linux and WSL2, check the host before trusting any policy. The documented VS Code implementation lists these prerequisites:
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- Bubblewrap 0.5.0 or later.
- Slirp4netns for unprivileged networking where that mode is used.
- Util-linux 2.35 or later.
- Compatible iptables tools.
- Permission to create unprivileged user and network namespaces.
- Read/write access to
/dev/net/tunwhen the networking design requires it.
WSL1 is unsupported for this model because it lacks kernel features bubblewrap needs. WSL2 can work when its kernel configuration and namespace permissions meet the requirements.
A practical preflight
- Confirm identity: run the launcher as the dedicated non-root account and verify that
idshows no unexpected groups or capabilities. - Check versions: record the installed bubblewrap and util-linux versions and confirm they meet the minimums above.
- Test namespaces: create a disposable user and network namespace as the agent account. If the operation is denied, do not treat a fallback mode as equivalent protection.
- Check the tunnel device: verify that
/dev/net/tunexists and is accessible when slirp4netns or a similar path is part of the design. - Inspect firewall and proxy rules: prove that an unapproved hostname cannot be reached, rather than assuming the namespace is isolated.
- Run a child-process test: have a shell, package manager and language-server process attempt the same forbidden file and network operations.
Missing kernel features can cause a launcher to weaken or disable enforcement. NVIDIA’s guidance warns that process sandboxes may fall back silently when required privileges or features are unavailable, so record the effective mode in logs and fail closed for high-risk jobs.
How do I launch an agent with bubblewrap, Landlock and seccomp?
The exact command depends on the agent and distribution, but the sequence below is a safe implementation pattern. Treat the paths as a policy template, not a universal copy-and-paste profile.
- Create a workspace: make a dedicated project directory owned by the agent account. Keep source files that must not change on a separate read-only mount or outside the writable tree.
- Build the mount view: use bubblewrap to create new user and mount namespaces, bind the project read/write, expose required runtime directories read-only, mount a private temporary directory, and hide the rest of the host.
- Apply Landlock: before starting the agent, load rules that allow read access to the source and toolchain paths, write access only to the workspace and temporary directory, and no access to home-directory secrets, device nodes or unrelated project trees.
- Install seccomp: load a profile that permits the calls observed by the agent’s language runtimes and build tools. Keep separate profiles for, for example, a Python test job and a native compiler job instead of using one permissive profile.
- Set the network mode: either create a namespace with no route or configure the only route through an allowlisting proxy. Make DNS follow the same policy; blocking IP traffic while leaving an unrestricted resolver can leak metadata.
- Drop remaining privilege: remove capabilities and set resource limits before executing the agent binary. The agent should never gain privilege as a side effect of a helper.
- Exercise the policy: attempt to read a known forbidden file, write outside the workspace, invoke a denied syscall and connect to an unapproved host. Confirm each action is denied and logged.
- Inspect descendants: repeat the tests from a terminal child, package-install script, language server and MCP server. Stop if any descendant runs outside the boundary.
Landlock and seccomp are normally configured by a small launcher or supervisor rather than by shell syntax alone. Keep that launcher versioned with the project policy, review changes, and test it whenever the agent, kernel or language runtime changes.
What is different on macOS and Windows?
macOS
The documented macOS implementation uses Apple’s Seatbelt facility, so it does not require installing bubblewrap or another Linux sandbox package. The same design rules still apply: run with a dedicated account, expose only the project, mediate network access separately and keep credentials out of the process. Validate the effective profile because a policy that launches but does not cover child tools is not sufficient.
Windows
The documented Windows implementation uses Windows process-container capabilities and has version-specific update requirements. Current support is described as experimental in the VS Code documentation. Treat that status as a deployment constraint: pin and test the supported Windows build, verify that child processes inherit the boundary, and do not use it for high-risk untrusted code until your tests demonstrate enforcement.
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Choosing one mechanism over another is a mistake; each protects a different boundary. The table shows the practical role of the main options.
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| Control or runtime | Isolation boundary | Privilege and prerequisites | Filesystem coverage | Network and credentials | Compatibility and overhead |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dedicated non-root account | Unix identity and file permissions | No special privilege; requires correct ownership and groups | Only paths permitted to the account | Does not restrict network or inherited secrets | Very compatible; low overhead |
| Bubblewrap mount view | Process mount and namespace view on the host kernel | User namespaces and bubblewrap; Linux/WSL2 prerequisites apply | Hides unbound paths and can make mounts read-only | Needs a separate network policy | Usually low overhead; programs may expect missing paths |
| Landlock | Kernel-enforced path restrictions layered on existing permissions | Kernel support; usable by unprivileged processes | Fine-grained read/write rules for filesystem hierarchies | No network or credential isolation | Low runtime overhead; policy must match required paths |
| seccomp-bpf | System-call filter in the host kernel | Kernel support and a maintained profile | Indirect; blocks operations, not file paths by itself | No direct network or secret isolation | Low overhead when narrow; compatibility work can be substantial |
| Network namespace or policy proxy | Network stack or egress decision point | Namespace privileges, proxy or firewall configuration | None | Can deny by default, allow destinations and log traffic; does not hide environment variables | Offline jobs are compatible; networked tools need explicit exceptions |
| gVisor | Application kernel between workload and host kernel | Runtime setup; KVM requires virtualization, while systrap uses seccomp interception | Runtime-specific; stronger kernel separation than host-only primitives | Configured by the runtime and surrounding policy | Stronger isolation model with possible syscall and performance trade-offs |
| Supervisor-mediated sandbox | Workload separated from a privileged policy supervisor | Supervisor deployment and policy service | Can combine Landlock with tightly scoped mounts | Supervisor is the only egress path and can broker secrets | High operational complexity; excellent observability and control |
What can an OS-level sandbox not guarantee?
A sandbox is not automatically a virtual machine, a user-account boundary or a credential vault. VS Code’s documentation states that approval and sandboxing are separate controls: approval decides whether an action needs confirmation, while sandboxing limits the resources the process can use. A user can approve a command that remains confined, and an unapproved command can still be dangerous if the sandbox is weak.
- Host-kernel exposure: namespaces, Landlock and seccomp still communicate with the monolithic host kernel. A kernel vulnerability can defeat multiple host-level controls.
- Fallback modes: absent namespaces, device access or required kernel features may cause a launcher to fall back or skip enforcement. “Nothing is perfect or guaranteed,” as NVIDIA’s AI Workbench documentation cautions.
- Environment leakage: inherited variables, mounted sockets, SSH agents and cloud metadata endpoints can expose secrets even when files are hidden.
- Unsandboxed helpers: a package manager hook, editor extension or MCP server launched by another service can escape the policy.
- Allowed-path abuse: a writable directory can contain symlinks, build hooks or generated code that attack another resource reachable through the same path.
- Policy mistakes: an allowlisted proxy destination, injected credential or extra mount can undo the intended least-privilege design.
Use code review, clean version-control baselines and audit logs to catch actions the kernel cannot classify as malicious. Inspect the agent’s diff before committing, and review every policy change as security-sensitive code.
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When should I use gVisor instead?
Choose gVisor when the workload is genuinely untrusted and host-kernel exposure is unacceptable, or when maintaining a narrow seccomp profile for a complex toolchain is impractical. gVisor places an application kernel between the workload and the host; an escape would require compromising both layers. Its systrap mode relies on seccomp interception and can run without hardware virtualization. Its KVM mode uses virtualization support and adds a different compatibility and deployment requirement.
This stronger boundary has trade-offs. System calls and filesystem behavior may differ from a normal Linux process, performance can change, and debugging the extra layer adds operational work. Test the exact agent, compiler, language server and package manager you plan to run rather than assuming container compatibility proves gVisor compatibility.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.What does a supervisor-mediated design add?
NVIDIA OpenShell documents a split in which a supervisor controls the sandboxed workload. The workload runs as one non-root identity with no Linux capabilities; Landlock restricts filesystem access; seccomp user notification stages network operations; and the supervisor is the only permitted egress path. The agent has no real credentials, so approved requests can be authorized and fulfilled without exposing reusable keys.
This model improves observability and credential handling, but it introduces a policy service that must be highly available, carefully authenticated and itself hardened. It is most appropriate for multi-tenant agent platforms or jobs that need controlled access to sensitive services, not for a one-off local script where a disconnected namespace is sufficient.
How do I troubleshoot a sandbox that breaks the agent?
The agent cannot start
Check the effective user, namespace permissions, bubblewrap version and required device access. Capture the launcher error before relaxing policy. If the host cannot create an unprivileged namespace, move the job to a host that meets the prerequisites rather than silently running unsandboxed.
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Tests fail after enabling seccomp
Identify the denied syscall from audit logs, reproduce it in a minimal test, and decide whether the operation is essential. Add the narrowest rule possible and retest the entire workload. Interfaces such as ioctl and io_uring deserve particular scrutiny because broad allowances can erase much of the filter’s value.
Package installation or downloads fail
Determine whether the failure is DNS, the proxy allowlist, certificate access or a missing read-only runtime path. Permit only the required registry and time window, and remove the exception after the build. Never solve a network failure by exposing the host network wholesale.
A child process can read or write outside the project
Inspect how it was launched. It may have bypassed the wrapper, inherited a host socket or started through an editor service. Make the wrapper the only executable entry point, apply policy before process creation, and repeat the forbidden-path test from every supported tool.
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The agent reports that sandboxing is enabled, but evidence is missing
Require machine-readable startup logs showing the identity, mount mode, Landlock status, seccomp profile, network mode and fallback state. A status message without an enforcement test is not proof. Add a startup self-test that intentionally attempts one blocked file and network operation.
What is the safest operating checklist?
- Define the exact files the agent must read and write; deny everything else.
- Launch as a dedicated non-root identity and drop capabilities before tools run.
- Use a restricted mount view plus Landlock path rules.
- Build and test a minimal syscall profile for each language runtime and build system.
- Deny outbound traffic by default; allow required destinations through a logged proxy.
- Keep API and cloud credentials outside the process; broker short-lived, task-scoped access.
- Verify namespace, bubblewrap, firewall, kernel and device prerequisites on every execution host.
- Confirm that terminal children, package hooks, language servers and MCP servers share the boundary.
- Log denied filesystem, syscall and network actions, and review policy changes.
- Start from a clean version-control baseline and inspect all agent diffs before committing.
Which design should I choose?
For a local coding agent working on non-sensitive code, use a dedicated account, a bubblewrap mount view, Landlock, a narrow seccomp profile and a network namespace or allowlisting proxy. For code that can be malicious or multi-tenant, prefer gVisor or a supervisor-mediated runtime after compatibility testing. If the host cannot satisfy the prerequisites, do not claim that a partially active sandbox provides the same protection—change the host, strengthen the runtime or run the task without sensitive data.
Frequently Asked Questions
Can an AI agent install packages inside an OS sandbox?
Yes, if the package manager and its helper scripts inherit the sandbox and the policy explicitly permits the required registry, DNS and certificate paths. Use a temporary writable cache and remove network and write exceptions after the build instead of granting permanent host access.
Do Landlock rules protect files mounted after the agent starts?
Landlock rules apply to filesystem hierarchies according to the ruleset and the process’s handled rights; they do not magically make every future mount safe. Prevent untrusted descendants from creating mounts, and test the exact mount and namespace sequence your launcher uses.
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Record the launcher’s effective identity, namespace creation result, Landlock and seccomp status, network mode and any fallback flag at startup. Then run deliberate blocked-file and blocked-network probes; a successful probe means the job should be treated as unsandboxed.
Is a read-only project mount enough to protect a repository?
No. Read-only mounts protect against direct writes but do not stop data theft, dangerous system calls, network exfiltration or attacks through writable temporary directories. Pair mount permissions with syscall filtering, egress control and credential isolation.
Should I sandbox the agent’s model server separately?
Yes when the model server, tool server or MCP service is a separate process or host. Give each component only the files, sockets and destinations it needs, and ensure a compromised helper cannot use a broader supervisor or host service to escape the agent’s policy.
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