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A stablecoin reserve is the issuer’s pool of assets intended to support the tokens in circulation. It may contain bank cash, short-dated U.S. Treasury bills, Treasury-backed overnight repurchase agreements, government money-market funds, or other reported assets—not just notes sitting in a vault. A reserve report therefore answers only part of the practical question: whether you can redeem one token for one dollar also depends on liquidity, settlement, banking access, custody, issuer terms, intermediaries, and insolvency law.
What a stablecoin reserve is—and what it is not
A dollar stablecoin is a digital token whose issuer promises redemption at, or price stability around, one U.S. dollar. The reserve is an issuer-side pool of assets that is supposed to support outstanding tokens. If an issuer has 10 billion tokens circulating, its reserve policy is intended to provide assets that can meet those holders’ redemption claims.
That promise is not the same as every holder having an immediately available dollar balance. Assets can take time to sell or settle. Redemption may be available only to approved customers, through particular banking rails, during specified operating hours, or subject to fees and minimums. A token can also trade below or above one dollar on exchanges while the issuer reports reserves exceeding liabilities.
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Evaluate a reserve on two separate levels:
- Asset support: what the issuer owns, how it is valued, and whether the assets exceed the tokens and other relevant liabilities.
- Access to dollars: who may redeem, through which intermediary, under what legal terms, and how quickly the underlying assets can become settled cash.
Which assets can back a stablecoin?
Cash and bank deposits
Bank cash is operationally convenient for minting and burning tokens and for paying redemptions. Deposits can be titled for stablecoin holders or held in accounts used to facilitate payment flows. Circle says some USDC reserves are held in cash accounts titled for holders, primarily at globally systemically important banks, with a smaller amount at additional banks to facilitate flows.
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A deposit is still an exposure to the banks, account structure, payment system, and custodian involved. Questions include whether the account is segregated, whether deposit insurance applies, how quickly funds can be transferred, and what happens if a bank or intermediary is unavailable.
Short-dated U.S. Treasury bills
Treasury bills are U.S. government obligations with short remaining maturities. They can generally be sold in a deep market and can earn a return while reserves are outstanding. Circle’s disclosed USDC policy limits direct Treasury securities to remaining maturities of three months or less.
Short maturity reduces, but does not eliminate, interest-rate and market-price sensitivity. A Treasury bill is also not identical to instantly spendable bank cash: it must be held by a custodian, sold or allowed to mature, and settled before the proceeds reach a redemption account.
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A repurchase agreement (repo) is secured short-term financing. Circle describes tri-party overnight reverse repos fully collateralized by U.S. Treasury securities, with collateral market-priced above the allocated cash amount and held by a rated third-party custodian.
Repo analysis requires more than the word “Treasury.” Check the counterparty, collateral eligibility, over-collateralization or haircut, margin procedures, custodian, and settlement timetable. An overnight term can support liquidity, but a failed counterparty, delayed settlement, or operational disruption can still affect access to cash.
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Government money-market funds
A government money-market fund is a regulated fund wrapper that owns a portfolio; it is not the same thing as a bank deposit. Review the fund’s holdings, liquidity rules, manager, custodian, valuation method, and redemption procedures.
Circle reports that its Circle Reserve Fund is a Rule 2a-7 government money-market fund managed by BlackRock, with assets in BNY custody. Circle said approximately 88% of USDC reserves were held in that fund at December 31, 2025. That is a dated allocation, not a current October 2026 percentage.
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“Other” is not a universal asset class. In the Federal Reserve’s 2025 analysis, the category can include non-U.S. Treasuries, other investments, precious metals or bitcoin, and issuer-specific residuals. The list does not mean every issuer holds every item. Whenever an issuer reports an “other” line, find its detailed definition and valuation policy.
How the main reserve assets compare
| Asset type | Liquidity and settlement | Primary exposures | What to inspect |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bank cash or deposits | Usually the most direct route to a payment or redemption transfer, subject to banking hours and rails | Bank credit, account terms, payment-system and custodian risk | Account title, segregation, bank concentration, transfer limits and availability |
| Short-dated Treasury bills | Highly marketable, but sale or maturity and settlement are required | Small market-price changes, custody and settlement risk | Remaining maturity, direct ownership, custodian and valuation |
| Overnight Treasury repo | Short contractual term; cash return depends on counterparty and settlement performance | Counterparty, collateral, haircut and operational risk | Collateral type and margin, counterparty, tri-party custodian and default procedures |
| Government money-market fund | Fund shares can generally be redeemed under fund rules, not as a bank-demand deposit | Fund portfolio, manager, custodian and settlement exposure | Rule 2a-7 status, holdings, liquidity gates or fees, NAV and custody |
| Other or residual assets | Varies widely; may be less liquid or harder to value | Market, credit, volatility and concentration risk | Exact constituents, valuation method, limits and disclosure detail |
Dated reserve snapshots: what the percentages actually show
The Federal Reserve published different snapshots for major dollar tokens in 2025. They are historical observations, not October 2026 allocations. Percentages should always be read with the issuer and measurement date attached.
| Token and measurement date | U.S. Treasuries | Repurchase agreements | Secured loans | Money-market funds | Bank deposits | Other |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| USDT, June 30, 2025 | 64.15% | 10.47% | 5.89% | 13.91% | 3.69% | 1.89% |
| USDC, August 23, 2025 | 33.59% | 50.79% | Not stated in the Federal Reserve table | Not stated in the Federal Reserve table | 14.24% | 1.38% |
| GUSD, August 23, 2025 | 0% | 0% | 0% | 0% | 100% | 0% |
The Federal Reserve notes that the Circle and Gemini figures exclude timing and settlement differences and renormalize the remaining assets to 100%. That methodological adjustment is one reason a pie chart from one issuer cannot automatically be compared with another issuer’s chart.
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What the latest disclosures establish—and what they do not
Circle’s disclosure cadence
Circle’s transparency page says it publishes USDC reserve holdings weekly alongside mint and burn flows. It also says a Big Four accounting firm provides monthly third-party assurance that reserve value exceeds USDC in circulation, using AICPA attestation standards. The page labels reserve categories as of October 8, 2026, but the corresponding numeric balances were not exposed in the available page text, so no current category percentages should be inferred from that label.
Circle states: “USDC is always redeemable 1:1 for US dollars, and EURC is always redeemable 1:1 for euros. Always.” This is the issuer’s stated policy. A holder’s practical access still depends on eligibility, account setup, banking rails, operating availability and the legal terms governing a claim.
Tether’s Q2 2026 figures
In a July 31, 2026 announcement covering assets as of June 30, 2026, Tether reported total assets of US$187,751,426,411 and total liabilities of US$183,641,897,215. The liabilities included US$183,622,105,630 related to digital tokens issued. Tether reported assets exceeding liabilities by US$4,109,529,196 and said BDO prepared the Q2 attestation.
Tether CEO Paolo Ardoino said, “Through all of the volatility, USD₮ remained fully backed with our reserves still exceeding liabilities by $4.11 billion.” This is management’s statement about the dated report; it is not a continuous guarantee or a substitute for reading the attestation’s scope and qualifications. The announcement also described secured lending exposure and reserve assets tested amid gold and Bitcoin volatility, illustrating why residual and non-cash categories deserve close examination.
How redemption works in practice
- Eligibility and onboarding: The holder uses an issuer-approved account or intermediary. Identity, jurisdiction, minimum amounts and fees may apply.
- Redemption request: The holder sends tokens to the issuer’s designated address or platform and requests fiat payment.
- Token cancellation: The issuer burns or otherwise removes the redeemed tokens from circulation.
- Asset conversion and settlement: Cash is paid from bank balances or obtained by selling or maturing bills, repo positions or fund shares. Settlement timing varies by asset and banking rail.
- Secondary-market alternative: A holder who cannot redeem directly may sell on an exchange. The market price can differ from one dollar because of demand, fees, liquidity, intermediary risk or concerns about the issuer.
This process explains why a reserve can be sufficient in aggregate while an individual redemption is delayed. The relevant question is not only “Are assets worth more than tokens?” but also “Can this claimant reach the assets through a functioning legal and operational path?”
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Are stablecoin reserves audited?
“Proof of reserves” is a broad marketing phrase. An attestation addresses specified assertions at a stated reporting date under an accountant’s engagement. It should not casually be described as a full audit of every issuer operation, a continuous on-chain proof, or a guarantee that no later event can affect liquidity.
For every report, check:
- the accounting firm and the exact issuer entities covered;
- the balance-sheet date and whether assets are measured at that date or continuously;
- the assurance standard, such as AICPA attestation standards;
- whether the report covers only reserve assets or also token liabilities and other obligations;
- valuation methods, custody confirmations, exclusions and qualifications;
- subsequent events between the reporting date and publication.
Circle’s annual filing says its reserve information moved from monthly to weekly disclosure and that the Circle Reserve Fund provides daily information on BlackRock’s website. Tether’s Q2 2026 document is an attestation prepared by BDO for a specified date, not evidence that every reserve component is available for immediate redemption at every moment.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.Risks that a reserve percentage can hide
Liquidity and timing risk
Bank cash, a Treasury bill, a repo position and a fund share may all be described as liquid, yet they settle through different systems. During a rush of redemptions, selling costs, market hours, holidays or settlement delays can matter. A token can temporarily lose its peg even when reported assets exceed liabilities.
Bank, repo and custodian exposure
Deposits depend on banking institutions and account documentation. Repo depends on counterparties, collateral quality, haircuts and the ability to transfer collateral or cash. Concentrating assets or operational functions at one bank, custodian or settlement network creates a single point of failure.
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Market and valuation risk
Short duration limits interest-rate sensitivity but does not make prices perfectly static. Less conventional holdings can be more volatile or harder to value. A reserve report should explain whether assets are valued at market, amortized cost or another permitted basis and how impairments are handled.
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Operational and intermediary risk
The Federal Reserve has identified complex intermediation and operational or liquidity disruptions as vulnerabilities. Wallet providers, exchanges, custodians, payment processors and banks can each impose delays or restrictions even when the issuer’s portfolio is solvent.
Legal and insolvency risk
Circle’s annual filing warns that courts have not yet determined how stablecoin reserve assets would be treated in an issuer bankruptcy. Holders could face delays, competing claims or an adverse legal outcome. A stated 1:1 redemption policy does not by itself settle property rights, segregation or insolvency priority.
Disclosure-comparability risk
Issuers use different category names, reporting dates, accounting bases, assurance scopes and adjustments for timing. Compare like with like: the same date, asset definition, liability denominator, custody information and assurance level. Otherwise, a more detailed report may only appear safer because it classifies assets differently.
A practical checklist for reading a reserve report
- Date: Is the figure current, and how long after the date was it published?
- Denominator: Does the report compare assets with tokens in circulation, all liabilities, or another measure?
- Asset detail: Are cash, bills, repo, funds, loans and “other” separated clearly?
- Liquidity: What can be paid immediately, and what requires sale, maturity or fund settlement?
- Counterparties: Which banks, repo dealers, managers and custodians hold or transact the assets?
- Concentration: Could one bank, custodian, fund or settlement rail disrupt redemptions?
- Legal structure: Are reserves segregated, and what does the issuer’s agreement say about insolvency?
- Assurance: Is the document an attestation or an audit, who prepared it, and what was excluded?
- Changes: Did the composition, token supply or redemption terms change after the reporting date?
Regulation and market context
The Federal Reserve reported aggregate stablecoin market capitalization of $317 billion on April 6, 2026, more than 50% above early 2025. Scale increases the importance of reserve quality and redemption mechanics but does not prove that any particular token is safe.
The Federal Reserve also states that the GENIUS Act was signed into law on July 18, 2025. A search excerpt for 12 U.S.C. § 5903 surfaced reserve categories and disclosure requirements, but the official code page was under maintenance when consulted. Read the enacted text and implementing rules directly before relying on a specific statutory requirement; do not treat a general “regulated” label as proof of segregation or immediate access.
In an April 2026 note, Federal Reserve authors wrote that “those that have a safer and more liquid reserve composition ─and hence lower run risk─ have exhibited relatively stronger adoption.” That is a broad analytical observation, not a guarantee about an individual stablecoin.
Bottom line
Stablecoin reserves are portfolios, not a single pile of cash. Treasury bills, repo, bank deposits and government money-market funds can each support a dollar token while creating different settlement, counterparty, custody, valuation and legal exposures. To judge whether a token is realistically redeemable, read the dated reserve breakdown, the liability measure, the assurance report, the redemption terms and the insolvency language together.
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