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Do not treat a signature or a certificate as proof that a work is genuine. Before paying, identify the exact object, reconstruct its ownership history from independent records, check stolen-art and export risks, obtain a current condition report, and commission an appropriately qualified expert who is independent of the sale. Authenticity is a cumulative judgment, not a single test.
Provenance and authenticity answer different questions. Provenance asks where the object has been and who owned it; authenticity asks whether the attribution, date, materials and making process are consistent with the claimed artist or period. Strong provenance can support authenticity, but an unbroken-looking story can still repeat an error. Conversely, an old work can be genuine even when parts of its history are missing. Gaps, contradictions or unresolved legal concerns should be treated as reasons to pause, not details to explain away.
What you are actually trying to prove
Use three evidence streams together: art-historical documentation, stylistic knowledge, and technical or scientific analysis. The International Council of Museums (ICOM) describes these as necessary and complementary aspects of good authentication and attribution practice. None produces a universal percentage chance of authenticity. The conclusion should explain how the evidence fits together, what remains uncertain, and whether the legal title is acceptable.
Authenticity, attribution and title are separate checks
- Authenticity: whether the object was made in the claimed period and is genuinely by the named artist, workshop or culture.
- Attribution: how confidently the work can be assigned to an artist, school, follower, workshop or later copy. “Attributed to,” “studio of,” “circle of,” “after,” and “in the manner of” are materially different descriptions.
- Provenance: the dated chain of custody, including owners, dealers, exhibitions, auctions, storage and movements.
- Legal and ethical title: whether the seller can transfer ownership and whether the object may have been looted, illegally excavated, illegally exported or subject to a restitution claim.
A seller can have a plausible provenance but an incorrect attribution, or a genuine object with a disputed title. Your contract and your decision should address each question explicitly.
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Step 1: Freeze the object’s identity before researching it
Research fails when records are accidentally mixed between similar works. Create one identity record for the exact object and update it only when a new source confirms a correction. Photograph the front, back, edges, frame, labels, stretcher, inscriptions and any damage in high resolution. Keep the original files and record when and where each image was made.
Record every identifying field
Use the Object ID approach as a minimum. Record the object type; materials and technique; measurements; inscriptions and markings; distinguishing features; title and title variants; subject; date or period; and maker or attribution. Add the following practical fields:
- Overall height, width and depth, plus sight size and framed size where relevant.
- Signature location, wording, medium, apparent age and whether it is under or over varnish.
- Labels, stamps, inventory numbers, gallery stickers, customs marks and handwriting on the verso or frame.
- Edition number, state, mould number or other identifying marks for prints, photographs, sculpture and multiples.
- Current owner, seller’s inventory number and the exact wording used in the sale listing.
- File names that tie each image to the object, such as
artist_title_front_2026-10-19.jpgandverso_label_01.jpg.
Do not silently normalize a title or dimensions. Preserve the wording in each source and create a separate field for your standardized description. A two-centimeter difference, a changed subtitle or a missing label may distinguish one object from another in a catalogue or theft report.
Step 2: Build a provenance timeline from primary records
Ask the seller for a complete provenance packet, then turn it into a dated timeline. For every event, record the date or date range, owner or custodian, location, how the object changed hands, the source that documents the event, and how confidently that source identifies this exact object.
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- Original invoices, receipts, bills of sale and consignment agreements.
- Exhibition and auction catalogues, including annotated copies or lot records.
- Letters, emails, estate inventories, insurance schedules and collection databases.
- Shipping, customs, import and export records, including permits.
- Contemporary photographs that show the object, its frame, labels or surrounding collection.
- References to a recognized catalogue raisonné or institutional catalogue entry.
Separate a document that witnessed a transaction from a later summary that merely repeats a story. An invoice naming the artist, dimensions and a distinctive label is stronger object-level evidence than an undated paragraph saying that a family “owned it for generations.” A dealer’s summary is a lead for further checking, not independent proof.
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Use a gap-and-conflict table
| Period | Claimed owner or place | Evidence | Object match | Open issue |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year or range | Person, gallery, museum or estate | Invoice, catalogue, letter, photograph or other record | Exact, probable or unclear | Missing date, conflicting dimensions, or none |
| Year or range | Person, gallery, museum or estate | Source and page or file reference | Exact, probable or unclear | What must be verified next |
Mark an undocumented interval plainly. Do not fill it with an assumption that the work stayed with the previous owner. Check whether a later source is simply copying an earlier catalogue; repeated wording is not independent confirmation.
Step 3: Search stolen-art databases and ownership warnings
Search the exact artist, title variants, dimensions, medium, inscriptions, inventory numbers and distinctive labels. Start with INTERPOL’s Stolen Works of Art Database and, where possible, a second relevant national or specialist register. INTERPOL’s current page reports almost 57,000 items in the database; the count changes, so record the date of your search.
Make the search reproducible
- Save the search date, terms, filters and the result page or record identifier.
- Compare the database image and description with your identity record, including dimensions, damage, frame and labels.
- Use the INTERPOL ID-Art app for manual or image searches when appropriate. The app can save dated searches, creating evidence that you performed a due-diligence check.
- Repeat the search after receiving new information, such as a previously undisclosed inventory number or photograph.
- Ask the seller to explain any near match in writing and pause payment until an independent authority resolves it.
A “no result” is not a clearance certificate. Databases are incomplete, records can use variant descriptions, and a theft may not yet be reported. A positive match, however, is a stop signal: do not buy, move, restore or resell the object while ownership is investigated.
Step 4: Check export, excavation and restitution risks
Request export and import documentation for every jurisdiction through which the object passed, especially where the work is archaeological, ethnographic or covered by cultural-property laws. Ask directly whether the object has been looted, illegally excavated, illegally exported or named in a restitution or repatriation claim. Require the seller to state the answer in the contract rather than relying on a verbal assurance.
ICOM guidance advises rejecting an item when reasonable suspicion remains after due diligence. A plausible price, a respected venue or a polished certificate does not cure a legal defect. If the seller cannot provide a permit that should exist, or refuses to identify the prior owner or export route, refer the matter to a lawyer or the relevant cultural-property authority before proceeding.
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Step 5: Obtain a current condition and conservation report
A pre-acquisition condition report helps you assess care requirements, existing damage, ongoing problems and hazards. The Canadian Conservation Institute says such a report should also record materials, technique, display history and labels or tags on the verso. It protects you from paying for damage that was present before delivery and shows what the object will require after purchase.
What the report should cover
- Structural condition of the support, joins, canvas, panel, paper, stone, metal or other material.
- Paint, ground, photographic layer, glaze, patina, textile or mixed-media stability.
- Previous restorations, overpaint, lining, cleaning, fills, replacements and retouching.
- Varnish, surface dirt, discoloration, corrosion, mold, pests, water damage and active deterioration.
- Display and storage history, light exposure, humidity concerns and handling hazards.
- Clear photographs, a condition diagram, the report date and the examiner’s qualifications.
Ask whether the examination was visual only or included analytical work. A report can document condition without expressing an opinion on authenticity. Treat those as separate deliverables.
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Step 6: Commission independent expertise
Choose a specialist whose expertise matches the artist, period, medium and regional context. Disclose the proposed purchase and ask about conflicts of interest. The person who stands to earn a commission from the sale should not be your only authority.
Request a written, object-specific opinion
The opinion should identify the exact work with an image and precise title, date or period, dimensions, medium, attribution and edition information where applicable. It should list the documents and examinations considered, distinguish observed facts from interpretation, and state unresolved limitations. Ask the expert to explain whether the conclusion is “by,” “attributed to,” “studio of,” “circle of,” “after,” or another category.
Give the expert the complete packet, including adverse information. Supplying only favorable documents can produce a confident but incomplete opinion. If specialists disagree, preserve both opinions and ask each to address the other’s evidence rather than selecting the one that supports the purchase price.
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Step 7: Use technical examination proportionately
Technical methods can reveal inconsistencies that are invisible in ordinary viewing. Depending on the object, a conservator or laboratory may use ultraviolet fluorescence, infrared imaging, microscopy, X-radiography or material analysis. These methods can show later coatings, optical brighteners, restorations, underdrawing, changes in composition or materials that are anachronistic for the claimed date.
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| Method | Possible finding | Limit |
|---|---|---|
| Ultraviolet fluorescence | Different varnishes, retouching, coatings or areas that respond differently | Patterns are not unique proof of authorship; viewing conditions and materials affect results |
| Infrared imaging | Underdrawing, changes or carbon-based features beneath the surface | A compatible underdrawing does not by itself prove who made the work |
| Microscopy | Layer structure, fibers, tool marks, particles and surface alteration | Small samples or visible areas may not represent the whole object |
| X-radiography | Support structure, joins, dense pigments, repairs and hidden changes | Interpretation requires appropriate equipment and specialist experience |
| Material analysis | Pigments, binders, fibers or alloys inconsistent with a claimed period | A compatible material is not a unique signature of an artist |
A consumer UV flashlight is only a preliminary observation aid, not an authentication device. Do not scrape, swab, clean or sample an object yourself. Agree in writing who will perform the work, whether sampling is allowed, how images and data will be retained, and how any damage risk will be managed.
Step 8: Evaluate a certificate of authenticity correctly
A certificate is one document in an evidence package. Check that it refers to the exact object, not merely to an artist or edition. It should include a precise description, dimensions, medium, identifying marks and a photograph or other unambiguous image. Confirm who issued it, what qualifications or authority that person has, the date, the basis for the conclusion and whether the issuer has a financial interest in the sale.
Unqualified language such as “guaranteed genuine” is not a substitute for evidence. The Australian Office for the Arts cautions that “A photo of the artist holding the art is not a Certificate of Authenticity.” A photograph can support identity or history, but it does not establish authorship, title or a reliable chain of custody.
Questions to put to the issuer
- Was the physical object examined, or was the certificate issued from photographs?
- Which records, catalogues, technical examinations and comparisons support the opinion?
- Does the certificate cover authenticity, attribution, provenance, condition, or only one of those?
- Is the certificate transferable to a later owner, and can the issuer be contacted for verification?
- What happens if a recognized authority later rejects the attribution?
Step 9: Match the contract, invoice and object
Before payment, ensure the invoice or purchase agreement identifies the artist or attribution exactly as offered, title and title variants, dimensions, medium, image or identifying marks, price, seller identity and any qualifications in the expert opinion. Include representations about title, stolen-art checks, export documents and known restitution claims. Spell out the return period, authenticity guarantee, remedies and which law governs the transaction.
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Compare the final paperwork with the object in front of you. Check labels, frame, measurements, signatures and damage against your photographs and the condition report. Record the handover date and preserve the signed contract, invoice, certificate, reports, correspondence, search records and original image files in more than one secure location. If the object is later consigned, this file is the evidence you can pass to the next custodian.
How to compare a dealer, auction house or private sale
Use the same criteria for every seller. A prestigious venue can provide better records and expertise, but it does not remove the need for your own due diligence.
| Decision factor | What to compare | Questions to ask |
|---|---|---|
| Independence | Conflicts, commissions and who selected the expert | Who is paid if I buy, and who wrote the opinion? |
| Primary-source provenance | Invoices, catalogues, correspondence, inventories, shipping records and photographs | Which events are documented by contemporary records? |
| Condition disclosure | Report date, scope, images and restoration history | What damage or hazard was observed, and what was not examined? |
| Expert and technical support | Relevant specialist credentials and analytical methods | Can I obtain an object-specific written opinion? |
| Title and legal checks | Stolen-art searches, export permits and restitution review | Which registers were searched, on what date, and with what terms? |
| Contract protection | Guarantees, returns, remedies and governing law | What happens if an authority later changes the attribution? |
| Buyer’s records | Documents and images delivered after purchase | Will I receive the full provenance packet and search log? |
Red flags that should stop the transaction
- The seller will not provide dimensions, verso photographs, labels or an inventory number.
- The provenance jumps across decades with no explanation, or every source repeats identical wording.
- A certificate names an artist but not the specific object, image, medium or measurements.
- The only “proof” is a signature, a photograph of the artist, a family story or a dealer’s assurance.
- The seller discourages independent examination or insists on using only its preferred expert.
- There is a near match in a stolen-art database, unexplained export history or a possible restitution claim.
- The price or deadline is used to pressure you into paying before records are supplied.
- The final invoice changes the attribution, omits qualifications or does not match the object.
Any one of these may have an innocent explanation, but the burden is on the seller to document it. Do not let a deadline turn an unresolved question into an irreversible purchase.
A practical go/no-go decision
Proceed only when the object identity is stable, each provenance event is labeled as documented or unverified, stolen-art and legal checks have been recorded, condition is understood, and an independent specialist has issued a written opinion appropriate to the claim. If a gap is merely incomplete, you may be able to negotiate a lower-risk contract with a defined return right and further research obligation. If the gap conceals a contradictory owner, an export problem, a database match or an expert conflict, stop until it is resolved.
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