The Tool Desk
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What at-rest and in-transit encryption protect
Encryption at rest protects stored data, such as objects, database files, disks, snapshots, backups, and logs. Encryption in transit protects data moving between clients, services, and networks. NIST describes TLS as providing “authentication, confidentiality, and data integrity protection between a client and server” in its SP 800-52 Rev. 2.
These controls do not mean data remains encrypted while an application is actively processing it. Google and Microsoft discuss encryption in use, including confidential computing, as a separate area of protection (Google Cloud; Microsoft Learn).
1. Map data, storage, and network paths
Start with an inventory, not a provider-wide encryption claim. Record each data set’s owner, sensitivity, location, replicas, retention, and applicable regulatory or contractual requirements. Define which data classes require encryption and which cryptographic configurations are acceptable; AWS likewise recommends an encryption policy based on classification and organizational requirements (AWS Prescriptive Guidance).
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For each important data flow, trace both its storage destinations and the boundaries it crosses. Include:
- Object storage, databases, file shares, block disks, snapshots, backups, exports, and replicas.
- Logs, queues, caches, analytics stores, and temporary or staging locations.
- Browsers and applications, public APIs, load balancers, service-to-service calls, database connections, and administrative access.
- Cloud-to-cloud transfers and links between cloud environments and on-premises systems.
This map becomes the checklist against which you verify actual settings. It also exposes less obvious copies, such as a database export or backup stored under a different service’s encryption policy.
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2. Verify encryption at rest resource by resource
Check current documentation and configuration for every resource type, region, and feature in scope. Confirm what is encrypted, which key protects it, whether backups and replicas are included, and what happens when data is copied, exported, restored, or moved. A provider’s general statement describes a baseline, not an audit of your configuration.
- AWS: AWS says transparent encryption at rest is standard across applicable services. Its guidance distinguishes server-side encryption, performed at the destination by the receiving service, from client-side encryption, performed locally before the service receives data. Verify the behavior for each service and resource (AWS Prescriptive Guidance).
- Google Cloud: Google says customer content is encrypted at rest by default. A May 2024 page describes storage-layer encryption as AES-256 by default, with a small number of legacy Persistent Disks using AES-128. That dated storage-layer statement is not a guarantee about every service or the current configuration of a particular resource; check the relevant product documentation and settings (Google Cloud).
- Azure: Microsoft says most Azure services, including Azure Storage and Azure SQL Database, encrypt at rest by default. “Most” is not “all”: check the precise resource model and its key options (Microsoft Learn; Azure data encryption at rest).
3. Choose the right level of key control
Encryption protects data only as well as the controls around the keys. Choose a model based on who must authorize key use, whether the service may receive plaintext, governance and audit needs, service compatibility, and the consequences of a key becoming unavailable. There is no universally best model.
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| Model | Control and plaintext | Operational responsibility | Best fit and trade-off |
|---|---|---|---|
| Provider-managed keys | The provider manages the encryption keys and service integration. Data is encrypted by the service; this does not by itself prevent the service from processing plaintext. | Generally the simplest option because the provider handles key-management operations. | A sound baseline when provider-managed encryption satisfies the threat model and governance requirements. Confirm exactly which resources it covers. |
| Customer-managed keys | You control additional aspects of key permissions and use, while the cloud service uses the key to protect data. | You must manage policies, access, monitoring, lifecycle, availability, and recovery. A disabled, deleted, or inaccessible key can affect reads, writes, restores, or service availability. | Use when a concrete requirement calls for added control over access, rotation, governance, or audit. It does not automatically make a deployment compliant. |
| Client-side encryption | Your application encrypts data before sending it to the cloud, so the service need not receive plaintext for storage. | You own application-side encryption and decryption and secure key handling. | Consider when the service should not see plaintext. Check compatibility with search, processing, backup, and recovery needs before adopting it. |
Customer-managed keys add control, but also complexity. Microsoft explicitly warns that they add management responsibility; AWS describes using customer-managed AWS KMS keys to define permissions for service use (Microsoft Learn; AWS Prescriptive Guidance). Google Cloud KMS provides key-management, rotation, and audit controls, according to its September 2026 guidance (Google Cloud KMS). Check pricing and performance implications against the specific service; they are not uniform across cloud products.
4. Protect every network path
Configure TLS for applicable client-to-endpoint and service-to-service connections, including APIs, databases, administrative interfaces, and internal application calls. Review the negotiated protocol and certificate validation, and use current policies supported by both endpoints. AWS recommends periodically reviewing relevant TLS policies (AWS IAM data protection).
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For network links, use a suitable encrypted VPN/IPsec option or supported link-layer protection where the requirements call for it. Private routing can limit exposure, but it does not by itself encrypt payloads. Google’s description of transit protection includes endpoint authentication and integrity verification in addition to confidentiality (Google Cloud).
For hybrid deployments, treat each leg separately: client to cloud endpoint, traffic between cloud services, and the on-premises-to-cloud link may have different controls and owners. The Microsoft Azure architecture question “Do you need end-to-end TLS encryption for all data in transit?” is a useful design prompt: decide where TLS terminates, and whether any hop after termination also needs protection. The answer depends on the data classification, architecture, and requirements (Microsoft Learn).
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5. Operate keys and test failure behavior
Key configuration is not a one-time checkbox. Restrict key permissions to the people and services that need them, separate key administration from key use where practical, protect credentials, and monitor key activity. AWS recommends least-privilege key access; Google Cloud KMS documents key rotation and audit controls (AWS Prescriptive Guidance; Google Cloud KMS).
- Document who can create, use, rotate, disable, and recover each key.
- Set a rotation and recovery approach that fits the service and policy; confirm what rotation changes in practice.
- Alert on unexpected key use and review access logs.
- Test restore and service behavior in a controlled environment before relying on a key configuration.
- Understand the impact of disabling, deleting, or losing access to a key before doing so in production.
Service behavior matters during rotation: Azure notes that rotating a key encryption key can cause the service to rewrap data encryption keys. Confirm the specific resource’s process and availability implications before scheduling a change (Azure data encryption at rest).
6. Apply standards in the right context
NIST SP 800-52 Rev. 2 (2019) states that TLS 1.2 with FIPS-based cipher suites is supported by U.S. government TLS servers and clients, and required TLS 1.3 support by January 1, 2024 for systems following that publication. These are requirements and guidance in the publication’s stated government context, not universal law for every organization. NIST announced on May 7, 2026 that SP 800-52 Rev. 2 was under review, so check for a subsequent revision before relying on it for standards-specific decisions (NIST SP 800-52 Rev. 2; NIST publication notice).
For other organizations, use applicable laws, contracts, and internal security policy to determine the required protocol and configuration. Do not infer that a specific cipher suite or key model is universally required from a cloud provider’s general guidance.
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