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To build a language with Arabic keywords, define the keywords as exact Unicode strings and recognize them in the lexer before emitting ordinary identifiers. For names, use a documented Unicode identifier profile—typically based on XID_Start and XID_Continue—and specify normalization, keyword escapes, bidirectional-text handling, and security checks. Those decisions belong in the language specification as well as the implementation: Unicode provides useful recommendations, but it does not choose your language’s rules for you.
1. Decide what the language accepts
Write down the language’s source encoding, keyword spellings, identifier rules, and treatment of unusual Unicode characters before implementing the scanner. Read source as Unicode text (commonly UTF-8 files decoded into Unicode scalar values), then tokenize characters—not individual UTF-8 bytes. Keep the original source text available so diagnostics can show exactly what a programmer typed.
The following small example uses illustrative spellings and syntax. They are design choices for this example, not reserved words defined by a Unicode standard:
متغير رسالة = "مرحبا"
إذا رسالة == "مرحبا" {
اطبع(رسالة)
} وإلا {
اطبع("أهلاً")
}Here, متغير declares a variable, إذا begins a conditional, وإلا introduces its alternative, and اطبع calls a built-in printing function. Braces, parentheses, and == are ordinary punctuation and operators. You could choose a different grammar, but document it unambiguously and use the same rules in the lexer, parser, formatter, and editor support.
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Specify the identifier profile
Unicode Standard Annex #31 (UAX #31) recommends XID_Start followed by zero or more XID_Continue characters for most identifier definitions. The annex also permits language-specific profiles that add or remove characters. This gives you a Unicode-wide basis without trying to maintain a hand-written list of Arabic code-point ranges. In particular, letters, combining marks, digits, underscore, and punctuation do not all have interchangeable roles: decide which are legal at the start of a name and which are allowed only after its first character.
Choose between a focused profile and a broad one. A focused profile can restrict names to Arabic-script letters and marks, plus explicitly chosen characters such as underscore and digits. A broad profile can allow the Unicode XID repertoire across scripts. The broader choice supports more users and languages, but also makes mixed-script review and visual-confusability safeguards more important. In either case, document treatment of Arabic combining marks, digits, punctuation, and joining controls rather than assuming a general Unicode property settles every orthographic question.
2. Normalize names and resolve keyword collisions
Two Unicode strings can look the same while using different sequences of code points. Decide whether your compiler normalizes identifiers before comparison or rejects input that is not already in the chosen normalization form. NFC is a practical option for case-sensitive identifiers. Rust’s language reference documents one concrete design: identifiers are NFC-normalized and compare equal when their NFC forms are equal. That is an example, not a rule every language must adopt.
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Do not apply compatibility normalization such as NFKC casually. It can collapse distinctions between characters, so using it changes which names the language treats as equal. Specify the selected form, when it is applied, and the Unicode data version used by the compiler. Keep both the normalized identifier used for symbol lookup and the original spelling used in source-preserving diagnostics.
Normalize keyword spellings under the same policy as identifiers, then compare the normalized token against the keyword table. Otherwise an identifier and a visually or canonically equivalent keyword spelling might be treated inconsistently. The source-preserving form should still be available for error messages.
Choose how reserved words can be used as names
The simplest rule is to reserve each Arabic keyword completely. This makes parsing straightforward, but a programmer cannot use that exact spelling as a variable or function name. Alternatively, provide an explicit raw-identifier escape, such as @إذا, and specify that it denotes an identifier rather than the conditional keyword. Rust’s raw-identifier syntax is a precedent for the design pattern, not a required spelling. Test escaped names in declarations, references, and diagnostics so the escape cannot be mistaken for punctuation or silently discarded.
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3. Implement a scanner that recognizes Arabic keywords
A scanner converts source characters into tokens. It should recognize whitespace and comments, literals, punctuation and operators, identifiers, and errors. When it sees an identifier-shaped sequence, it should consume the whole sequence first, normalize it according to the language rules, then check the keyword table. This avoids splitting a longer identifier merely because its prefix matches a keyword.
- Decode input: Read the source file using the specified encoding and report malformed input rather than replacing undecodable bytes silently.
- Handle trivia and literals: Skip defined whitespace and comments; scan string and numeric literals according to their own rules. Decide separately whether Arabic-Indic digits are allowed in numeric literals.
- Scan identifiers: If the next code point is legal at identifier start, consume subsequent code points accepted by the continuation rule. Apply any profile restrictions and retain the original source span.
- Resolve the token: Normalize the spelling as specified. Emit a keyword token if it matches a normalized reserved spelling; otherwise emit an identifier token carrying its normalized lookup form and original spelling.
- Recognize operators and punctuation: Use longest-match rules where needed—for example, recognize
==as one token before considering=—and report an error for any otherwise unrecognized character.
In language-neutral pseudocode, the identifier branch looks like this:
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if is_identifier_start(next_code_point):
raw = consume_identifier_code_points()
canonical = normalize_NFC(raw)
if canonical is a reserved_keyword:
emit keyword_token(canonical, source_span)
else:
emit identifier_token(canonical, raw, source_span)The actual implementation must use Unicode property data appropriate to the version and profile you have specified. Avoid substituting a rough Arabic-letter range or an unrelated library’s definition of “letter” for the required XID behavior. If your implementation language or regular-expression engine does not expose the properties you need, use a Unicode library or generate tables from the selected Unicode data.
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4. Parse tokens, then interpret or compile
Keep lexical recognition separate from grammar. The scanner should report a token such as IF for إذا; the parser should decide where an IF token is valid and how its condition and branches are structured. A small first version can parse tokens into an abstract syntax tree, check variable declarations and types (if the language has types), then interpret the tree. A later implementation can add bytecode or code generation without changing the meaning of the source grammar.
A conventional compiler can be divided into preprocessing, scanning, parsing, semantic analysis, code generation, and linking. The Phoenix paper describes an Arabic-language compiled object-oriented language with that six-part core. It is a useful architectural precedent, but its abstract does not establish a particular Unicode identifier policy, bidi solution, or security profile.
For a first implementation, make each stage return structured errors with source spans. That lets the parser report “expected an expression after إذا” at the relevant token and lets later stages distinguish an undefined identifier from a character the scanner rejected.
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5. Make bidirectional source understandable
Arabic text is right-to-left, while many operators, punctuation marks, and Latin names are left-to-right. The Unicode Consortium’s UAX #31 warns: “In the absence of higher-level protocols (see Section 4.3, Higher-Level Protocols, in [UAX9]), tokens may be visually reordered by the Unicode Bidi Algorithm in bidirectional source text, producing a visual result that conveys a different logical intent.” This means correct tokenization and safe, comprehensible display are separate responsibilities.
Specify how the compiler treats bidirectional control characters in code. A cautious design rejects or restricts them in identifiers and outside explicitly defined contexts, while still handling ordinary Arabic letters correctly. If you allow controls for a justified use, define contextual rules and make tools reveal their presence; do not let them alter the apparent order of source without warning. Comments and string literals need explicit policies too, since their content may be intended to include directional text.
- Show diagnostics with line and column locations based on a documented counting method, and preserve the original source slice.
- In diagnostic output or source viewers, make unusual control characters visible or provide an escaped/logical-order view.
- Check how mixed Arabic, Latin text, numbers, parentheses, and operators appear in the editor and terminal environments you intend to support.
- Ensure copy-and-paste, formatting, and plain-text export preserve the logical source sequence rather than relying on one viewer’s visual reordering.
6. Add identifier security and diagnostics
UAX #31 notes that even default identifiers can be spoofed through invisible characters, visual similarities, or bidirectional reordering. Unicode Technical Standard #39 (UTS #39) describes security profiles for identifiers, including restrictions intended to reduce such risks. Consider its guidance alongside the language’s intended Arabic orthography; a restrictive profile can improve consistency but should not accidentally reject characters users need.
Define how the compiler handles visually confusable names, default-ignorable or invisible characters, mixed scripts, and joining controls. Possible measures include rejecting disallowed characters, warning when distinct identifiers are confusable, and warning about unexpected script mixing. These checks help users inspect source; they cannot guarantee that all spoofing is prevented. Preserve the code-point sequence in diagnostics so a report can distinguish similar-looking names instead of displaying only a misleading glyph.
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7. Test the rules as part of the language
Tests should check specified behavior, not merely whether one sample program runs. Include positive tests, rejection tests, and checks of displayed errors and source locations.
- Recognize each Arabic keyword as its intended token, and ensure a longer identifier beginning with the same letters stays an identifier.
- Accept and reject identifier starts and continuations according to the chosen profile, including Arabic combining marks in valid positions.
- Test canonically equivalent spellings under the selected normalization policy, including equality, duplicate declarations, and the spelling shown in diagnostics.
- Test a keyword used as a name both without an escape (if reserved) and with the documented raw-identifier escape (if supported).
- Test mixed Arabic and Latin identifiers, digits, operators, parentheses, comments, and strings.
- Test bidi controls and other disallowed or suspicious characters, confirming the compiler’s error or warning makes the character inspectable.
- Check that parser and semantic errors identify the correct original source span even when normalized names are used for lookup.
Pin the Unicode data version in implementation tests. When upgrading that data, review changes to accepted identifiers and security checks as a language compatibility decision rather than treating them as an invisible library update.
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