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Timber—especially mass timber—often has the lowest embodied carbon in the comparisons available, but it is not a universal winner. Results depend on the building design, location, lifecycle boundary and assumptions about biogenic carbon and end of life. In one UK analysis of multistory frame configurations, median whole-life embodied carbon was lowest for timber, followed by reinforced concrete and steel. A separate 2024 U.S. study found mass timber lower than both alternatives in its tested residential buildings, while also finding steel lower than concrete. Those findings describe particular comparisons, not a carbon ranking that applies to every project.
What is the short answer?
If you need a starting point rather than a project-specific calculation, the evidence points to timber, particularly mass timber, as the option that often has the lowest embodied carbon among these three structural systems. But the more useful answer is conditional: a material name alone cannot tell you the carbon impact of a building. Its design, the quantities of material used, the location and the lifecycle stages counted all affect the result.
Two studies illustrate both the pattern and the caveat. Hart, D’Amico and Pomponi’s 2021 analysis of UK multistory frame configurations reported the lowest median whole-life embodied carbon for timber. Kumar and colleagues’ 2024 U.S. study found mass timber lower than functionally equivalent concrete and steel residential designs under its stated comparison boundaries. Yet the 2024 study also found steel below concrete, whereas the UK analysis reported a lower median for reinforced concrete than for steel.
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What do the reported comparisons show?
The numbers below are not directly interchangeable. They come from different studies, geographies, building types and lifecycle boundaries. Read each figure with its stated scope rather than treating the table as a single controlled ranking.
| Study and comparison | Reported result | How to interpret it |
|---|---|---|
| Hart, D’Amico and Pomponi, Journal of Industrial Ecology, 2021; UK multistory frame configurations | Median whole-life embodied carbon: timber 119 kgCO2e/m²; reinforced concrete 185 kgCO2e/m²; steel 228 kgCO2e/m². | The authors analyzed 127 configurations from 2 to 19 stories. The distributions overlapped, so the medians do not predict the result for every project. |
| Kumar et al., Building and Environment, 2024; U.S. residential building comparisons, modules A–C | Mass timber had 39–51% lower GWP than reinforced concrete and 28–34% lower than structural steel. | These ranges apply to the buildings and boundaries in the study; they are not generic savings for any timber building. |
| Kumar et al., 2024; same U.S. comparisons, with module D included | Mass timber had 81–94% lower GWP than reinforced concrete and 76–91% lower than structural steel. | The result depends strongly on the study’s module D treatment, which accounts for biogenic carbon and recyclability. Do not quote it without that qualification. |
| Kumar et al., 2024; tested building comparisons | Steel had 21–33% lower GWP than concrete. | This is a finding for those tested comparisons, not proof that steel is generally lower-carbon than concrete. |
| U.S. Forest Service Research and Development study record; structural comparison, A1–A4 | Mass timber: 198 kgCO2e/m²; steel equivalent: 243 kgCO2e/m², or 19% lower for the mass-timber design. | The retrieved record does not show a publication year. The boundary is A1–A4; this is not a whole-life result. |
The table’s percentages and per-area totals answer different questions. The UK figures are medians across a set of frame configurations; the 2024 U.S. percentages compare selected functionally equivalent residential designs; and the Forest Service record gives a structural comparison over A1–A4. A figure from one study cannot be substituted for another study’s result just because both use kgCO2e/m² or compare timber with steel.
The UK medians show the scale of the difference within that analysis: timber’s median was 66 kgCO2e/m² below reinforced concrete and 109 kgCO2e/m² below steel. Those subtractions describe the difference between medians, not a guaranteed saving for a proposed building. Because the distributions overlapped, some individual configurations may not follow the median ordering. The spread matters as much as the headline ranking when applying the result to a design.
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1Scan for outdated or missing drivers - takes under a minute2Repair Windows errors before they cause bigger problems3Fix the driver behind crashes, sound loss and screen glitchesThe 2024 U.S. percentages also need careful reading. For modules A–C, the reported mass-timber advantage was a range: 39–51% compared with reinforced concrete and 28–34% compared with structural steel. These are not one universal percentage per material, nor a direct prediction for a different building. Adding module D changed the reported ranges to 81–94% and 76–91%, respectively. That shift is a signal to state exactly which modules are included, rather than selecting the largest percentage as the simple answer.
Why can the ranking change?
The buildings being compared may not be equivalent
A fair comparison asks what each structural system delivers, not just how much carbon is associated with a tonne of a named material. Two designs should provide the same intended function and satisfy the same relevant requirements. The WoodWorks comparative series describes mass-timber reference buildings compared with functionally equivalent steel and concrete alternatives. That is more informative than comparing isolated material quantities without explaining what they are being used to build.
Even when the buildings are intended to be equivalent, the actual designs and quantities can differ. A result for a frame does not automatically describe a whole building, and a result for one building type or scale does not establish the outcome for another. The 2021 UK study’s 127 configurations covered buildings from 2 to 19 stories; its medians summarize that analyzed set, not every possible structural design.
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Functional equivalence is essential because a material comparison is meaningful only if the alternatives are being asked to do the same job. If one option is assessed as a frame and another as a whole building, the totals may include different things. Likewise, the UK frame analysis and the U.S. residential comparisons answer questions about their respective cases; neither establishes the ranking for every building type, height or design. A useful project comparison should name the reference building and the alternatives clearly enough that a reader can tell what is held constant.
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Embodied-carbon results depend on which lifecycle modules are included. The cited studies make this especially visible: Kumar et al. reported one set of mass-timber advantages for modules A–C and a much larger set when module D was included. The change is too large to treat the module D figures as a small adjustment to the A–C comparison. It is a different boundary with consequential assumptions.
The Forest Service study record reports A1–A4 results, while the UK study reports whole-life embodied-carbon medians. Those are not equivalent scopes. When comparing published numbers, check the boundary next to the result; an upfront or product-and-transport comparison should not be described as if it were a whole-life assessment.
A lifecycle label is not a footnote. It determines which impacts the total represents, so a lower number under one scope cannot automatically be called a lower whole-life result. The A1–A4 mass-timber figure of 198 kgCO2e/m² and steel figure of 243 kgCO2e/m², for example, are useful as that study’s scoped structural comparison. They should not be placed on equal footing with the UK whole-life medians without explaining the difference. The same discipline applies to module A–C percentages and results that include module D.
Biogenic carbon and end of life need explicit treatment
Timber introduces questions about biogenic carbon and what happens at end of life. Kumar et al.’s module D results account for biogenic carbon and recyclability, and the study’s reported advantage becomes substantially larger when that module is included. A separate timber-versus-steel study examines how end-of-life assumptions and LCA methodology affect results. That sensitivity is a reason to inspect the accounting method, not to assume that every timber study—or every end-of-life scenario—will produce the same outcome.
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For a project decision, ask how the assessment treats biogenic carbon, reuse, recycling and disposal, and whether those effects are included in the headline result or reported separately. If a published comparison does not make the treatment clear, the ranking may be difficult to interpret. Do not place a module D result beside an A–C result as though they shared the same accounting basis.
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In practical terms, a timber result should be read together with the assumptions that produced it. The 2024 findings show why: the stated mass-timber advantage over concrete and steel is materially different depending on whether module D is counted. A headline that quotes the 81–94% or 76–91% range without saying module D is included would omit a central qualification. Similarly, a comparison that leaves biogenic carbon, recycling or disposal treatment unexplained makes it harder to judge whether its result is relevant to another project.
Location and data matter
The cited comparisons come from different settings: a UK analysis of multistory frames, U.S. residential building comparisons, and a U.S. Forest Service study record for a structural comparison. A result tied to one geography and building context does not establish the carbon outcome elsewhere. Material data and design assumptions should match the project being assessed; otherwise, a precise-looking number can imply more certainty than the comparison supports.
Geography is not just a label to attach after a result. The studies themselves are tied to different contexts, and their findings should remain tied to those contexts when summarized. Do not present the UK median as though it came from a U.S. residential comparison, or the Forest Service A1–A4 result as a whole-life figure. A project-level assessment should identify its location and the material data used so that readers can see what the calculation represents.
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How to compare concrete, timber and steel fairly
Before accepting a claim that one material is lower-carbon, check what was compared and how the result was calculated. For a project or published study, the following questions help distinguish a useful comparison from a misleading headline.
- Confirm equivalent function. Check that the alternatives are intended to provide the same building function and meet the same requirements. Look for a defined reference design and equivalent alternatives, rather than an unexplained comparison of material masses.
- Identify the object being assessed. Establish whether the result covers a structural frame, a component or the whole building. Do not generalize a frame result to all building impacts without evidence.
- Record the geography and material data. Note where the project or reference design is located and what location-specific material data the assessment uses. The UK and U.S. findings in the cited studies should remain identified with their contexts.
- Check the study period and lifecycle modules. Find out what period and lifecycle stages the result covers. Keep A1–A4, A–C and whole-life results distinct; add module D only when the result explicitly includes it.
- Inspect carbon and end-of-life assumptions. Ask how biogenic carbon is accounted for and what is assumed about reuse, recycling and disposal. These assumptions can materially affect timber comparisons, especially when module D is counted.
- Compare like units and like boundaries. Check whether the figures use the same unit, functional basis and lifecycle scope before calculating a percentage difference or ranking.
- Read the spread, not only the central value. Where a study reports distributions or multiple configurations, look at their range and overlap as well as their medians. Hart and colleagues reported overlapping distributions, so the median ordering is not a guarantee for an individual design.
- Keep carbon separate from other decision criteria. Compare cost and construction speed as their own project considerations. The WoodWorks series analyzes those dimensions alongside whole-building LCA; neither cost nor speed is a proxy for embodied carbon.
These checks also help prevent a common mistake: combining several plausible figures into a single ranking even though they answer different questions. Before stating that one option is “X% lower,” verify that both values refer to functionally equivalent alternatives, the same unit and the same lifecycle boundary. If one result is whole-life and another is A1–A4, or one includes module D and another does not, the percentage is not a like-for-like comparison.
For a project team, the comparison should be documented in a way that another reader can follow: name the building and structural alternatives, state the geography and study period, list the lifecycle modules, explain biogenic-carbon and end-of-life assumptions, and show whether the reported value is upfront or whole-life. Where a study offers multiple configurations, preserve the range or distribution instead of repeating only a median as if it were a project-specific forecast.
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What the studies do—and do not—establish
Taken together, the available comparisons support a qualified conclusion: timber or mass timber had the lowest reported impact in the cited studies that directly compared it with concrete and steel. The evidence also shows why a universal ranking would go too far. The UK frame study’s median ordering was timber, reinforced concrete, then steel, with overlapping distributions. In Kumar et al.’s U.S. comparisons, mass timber was lower than both alternatives under the stated scopes, but steel was 21–33% below concrete in the tested buildings.
These studies are not one global, apples-to-apples meta-analysis. They differ in geography, building type, scale, lifecycle scope and treatment of biogenic carbon and end of life. A result from a selected residential comparison cannot simply be combined with a median from multistory frame configurations or an A1–A4 structural comparison to produce a universal percentage advantage.
For a real project, the useful next step is a whole-building life-cycle assessment of the actual alternatives, designed around the same function and reporting its boundaries and assumptions. The published findings can help identify a promising option and the questions a project assessment needs to answer; they cannot replace that project-specific comparison.
The careful conclusion is therefore not that concrete or steel is always higher-carbon, or that timber is automatically lower-carbon regardless of design. It is that timber performed well in the cited comparisons, while the ordering between concrete and steel varied by study. Hart, D’Amico and Pomponi reported a lower median for reinforced concrete than steel; Kumar et al. reported steel 21–33% below concrete in their tested U.S. comparisons. That difference reinforces the need to state which designs, boundaries and assumptions support any ranking.
Does lowest embodied carbon mean best overall material?
No. Embodied carbon is one important comparison, but the evidence here does not establish a universal best material across every project consideration. The WoodWorks comparative series considers cost and construction speed as separate dimensions alongside whole-building LCA. Those factors should be evaluated independently for the building and its requirements rather than inferred from a carbon result.
Likewise, a lower result in one study does not mean a system will be lower-carbon in every design. The carbon finding is only as relevant as the comparison’s function, scope, data and assumptions are to the project at hand.
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In particular, a carbon result does not answer how a material choice fits a project’s cost or construction schedule. The WoodWorks series treats those as distinct comparisons, alongside whole-building life-cycle assessment. The available findings do not provide one cost or schedule number that can be applied to every project, so teams should assess those criteria for their own building rather than assume that a lower-carbon option is necessarily cheaper or faster.
Frequently Asked Questions
Is timber always the lowest-carbon structural material?
No. Timber, particularly mass timber, had the lowest reported impact in the cited direct comparisons, but the studies differ in building type, geography and lifecycle scope. The UK study’s distributions overlapped, so its median ordering is not a guarantee for an individual design.
Why did the mass-timber advantage change when module D was included?
In Kumar et al.’s 2024 U.S. comparisons, mass timber was 39–51% lower in GWP than reinforced concrete and 28–34% lower than structural steel under modules A–C. With module D included, the reported ranges were 81–94% and 76–91%. The larger figures reflect the study’s module D treatment of biogenic carbon and recyclability, so they should only be quoted with that boundary stated.
Was concrete or steel lower-carbon in the studies?
It depended on the comparison. Hart, D’Amico and Pomponi reported UK median whole-life embodied carbon of 185 kgCO2e/m² for reinforced concrete and 228 kgCO2e/m² for steel. Kumar et al. reported steel 21–33% below concrete in their tested U.S. building comparisons.
Can I compare the Forest Service mass-timber and steel figures with the UK whole-life figures?
Not as if they had the same scope. The U.S. Forest Service Research and Development study record reports 198 kgCO2e/m² for mass timber and 243 kgCO2e/m² for a steel equivalent over A1–A4. Hart, D’Amico and Pomponi report whole-life medians for UK frame configurations. Keep the boundaries and contexts attached to the numbers.
What should a project team check before choosing a material on carbon grounds?
Compare functionally equivalent designs, identify whether the assessment covers a frame or whole building, state the location and material data, and check the study period and lifecycle modules. Make biogenic-carbon, reuse, recycling and disposal assumptions explicit, and treat cost and construction speed as separate criteria.
The Bottom Line
Bottom line: Timber—especially mass timber—often had the lowest embodied carbon in the cited comparisons, but no material wins in every design or assessment. Compare functionally equivalent buildings, keep lifecycle boundaries and end-of-life assumptions visible, and use a project-specific whole-building LCA before treating a published ranking as a decision.
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