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Hotter liquids increased measured particle release from several disposable cup types in a 2024 experiment, but the results do not identify one cup material as universally safest. A paper cup may have a plastic lining, and particle counts in test liquids are not proof of a health effect. What a study finds depends on the cup, liquid temperature and contact conditions, and how particles are detected.
What the cup studies found
A 2024 test of four disposable cup types
Akbulut and colleagues tested cups made from polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), expanded polystyrene (EPS), and polyethylene-coated paper. They filled them with ultrapure water at 4°C, 50°C, and 80°C and assessed contact times from zero to 20 minutes. Across the tested cups, particle counts at 50°C and 80°C were significantly higher than at 4°C. The difference between 50°C and 80°C was not statistically significant, and contact time alone was not statistically significant in the detailed analysis.
The study reported an average of 556.80 ± 31.39 particles per litre across its tested conditions. Its lowest reported result was 126.6 ± 75.71 particles per litre for polyethylene-coated paper at 4°C and zero minutes; its highest was 1,420 ± 380 particles per litre for PP at 50°C and 20 minutes. These are results from that study’s protocol, not estimates for every cup or hot drink.
| Study result | Cup and test conditions | Reported count |
|---|---|---|
| Lowest reported result | Polyethylene-coated paper; ultrapure water at 4°C; zero minutes | 126.6 ± 75.71 particles/L |
| Average across tested conditions | Four cup types and the study’s temperature and contact-time conditions | 556.80 ± 31.39 particles/L |
| Highest reported result | PP; ultrapure water at 50°C; 20 minutes | 1,420 ± 380 particles/L |
Source for all three figures: Akbulut et al. (2024). The minimum and maximum are particular test conditions; the average combines the study’s conditions. Do not read the table as a general ranking of cup materials.
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A separate paper-cup study used a different measurement approach
Ranjan et al. (2021) reported approximately 25,000 micron-sized particles in 100 mL of hot water after 15 minutes in its paper-cup test. The study also reported a much larger count of sub-micron particles using electron microscopy. Those results are not directly comparable with the 2024 figures: the studies used different detection methods and particle-size thresholds, as well as different test protocols.
Does paper release less plastic than a plastic cup?
There is no well-supported universal answer. “Paper cup” describes only part of the construction: many disposable paper cups have a polymer lining, so the paper exterior does not establish that the cup is plastic-free. The 2024 experiment included polyethylene-coated paper alongside PP, PS, and EPS cups, but its results do not establish a general safest-to-least-safe order for those material categories.
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A 2025 meta-analysis summarized 237 observations from 30 studies and found that temperature-related release varied by polymer. Its separate comparison of polyethylene and polyethylene-coated paper cups found fewer counted particles from the coated-paper cups at 5°C and 60°C. That case study is specific to the cups and methods assessed; it does not establish that lined paper cups always release fewer particles than plastic cups.
Other studies have examined LDPE- and PLA-lined paper cups, and a 2026 study summary describes tests of PP, PET, and PS cups using different temperatures, contact times, and food simulants. The available details do not establish quantitative results suitable for ranking those options. Findings using ethanol food simulants should not be treated as results for ordinary coffee or tea.
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Why results differ between studies
A particle count is meaningful only alongside the conditions and method that produced it. When evaluating a material comparison, check:
- Cup construction: solid polymer, coated paper, or another layered design. The lining can matter as much as the paper exterior.
- Liquid and temperature: ultrapure water, a food simulant, coffee, and tea are not interchangeable test liquids. Temperature-related effects also varied by polymer in the 2025 synthesis.
- Contact conditions: temperature and time in the cup can differ across protocols. In the 2024 experiment, temperature mattered statistically, while contact time alone did not in the detailed analysis.
- Particle-size cutoff and detection method: a method that detects smaller particles can report a different count from one that measures only larger particles. This is one reason the 2021 and 2024 study counts cannot be compared as if they measured the same thing.
- What was measured: particle release, chemical migration, and a health outcome are distinct endpoints. Evidence for one does not establish the others.
Do the measured particles show that hot drinks are harmful?
No cup-release experiment described here establishes that the detected particles are absorbed, cause dose-related illness, or create a clinical risk. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration says, “There is not sufficient scientific evidence to show that microplastics and nanoplastics from plastic food packaging migrate into foods and beverages.” The FDA also says current scientific evidence does not demonstrate a human-health risk from levels detected in foods and notes that particle-detection and characterization methods are not standardized.
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The World Health Organization’s 2019 report concerns drinking water, not exposure from cups. It provides context on evidence limitations and research needs; it is not a cup-specific finding that disposable cups are either safe or unsafe. The available cup studies support discussing measured release under particular test conditions, not claims that a cup “poisons” a drink or that the reported counts prove disease.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.What can you do if you want to use fewer disposable cups?
If reducing use of disposable cups is your goal, consider a reusable glass mug or stainless-steel travel mug. The cited paper-cup study recommended reusable glass and steel cups, but it did not test those mugs against disposable cups or show that they eliminate exposure. This is a practical alternative, not a proven medical intervention.
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Pre-washing reduced counted particles by 52–65% in the 2024 experiment’s protocol. That finding does not establish pre-washing as a proven household safety measure, so it should not be treated as a reliable way to prevent exposure.
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