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The difference between iPad and iPad Air is mainly performance, display quality, Apple Intelligence, Pencil support, storage, and USB speed: the iPad 11-inch with A16 starts at $449, while the iPad Air 11-inch with M4 starts at $749 in the U.S. Choose the iPad for everyday value and the Air for demanding work and longer-term headroom.
This comparison covers the currently sold iPad 11-inch (A16) and iPad Air 11-inch (M4) as of August 18, 2026. The 13-inch iPad Air M4 is included where its larger workspace changes the buying decision.
Key takeaways
- The iPad 11-inch (A16) starts at $449 for Wi-Fi with 128GB, while the iPad Air 11-inch (M4) starts at $749 with the same 128GB entry storage.
- The iPad Air M4 has an 8-core CPU, 9-core GPU, 12GB unified memory, Apple Intelligence support, and substantially more performance headroom than the A16 iPad.
- Both 11-inch models have the same 2360-by-1640 resolution, 264 ppi density, 500-nit brightness, 12MP cameras, Center Stage, Touch ID, and Apple-rated battery life of up to 10 hours.
- The Air has the better display for drawing and color-sensitive work because it adds P3 color, full lamination, antireflective coating, and Apple Pencil hover.
- The A16 iPad has USB 2 speeds up to 480Mb/s and supports one 4K external display, while the Air has USB 3 speeds up to 10Gb/s and supports one display up to 6K at 60Hz.
- The 13-inch Air M4 is primarily a workspace upgrade rather than a performance upgrade; it is larger, heavier, brighter, and more comfortable for split-screen work.
Which exact iPad and iPad Air models are being compared?
The difference between iPad and iPad Air in this article refers to Apple’s current base iPad 11-inch (A16) and iPad Air 11-inch (M4), not the older 10th-generation iPad or earlier M2 and M3 iPad Air models. Apple identifies both current 11-inch products by category names that slightly overstate their actual rectangular display diagonals: each display measures 10.86 inches diagonally.
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|---|---|---|---|
| iPad | iPad 11-inch (A16) | A16 | $449 |
| iPad Air | iPad Air 11-inch (M4) | M4 | $749 |
| iPad Air | iPad Air 13-inch (M4) | M4 | $949 |
These are Apple U.S. starting-price signals recorded on August 18, 2026. See Apple’s iPad 11-inch technical specifications, iPad Air technical specifications, and iPad Air buying page before purchasing because prices, promotions, education discounts, taxes, and availability can change.
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- WHY IPAD AIR — iPad Air with the Apple M4 chip packs even more performance into a beautiful design, and it comes in two portable sizes. It features Apple Intelligence* along with a stunning Liquid Retina display, Touch ID, advanced cameras, and Wi-Fi 7.*
- PERFORMANCE AND STORAGE — The M4 chip delivers advanced graphics and incredible performance for smooth multitasking and complex AI tasks. And with all-day battery life, you can keep working and playing wherever you go.* Choose up to 1TB of storage for apps, music, movies, and more.*
- IPADOS + APPS — Run apps and get more done with the game-changing capabilities and intuitive design of iPadOS. The flexible windowing system lets you control, organize, and manage your workflows like never before.
- APPLE INTELLIGENCE — Apple Intelligence is the personal intelligence system that helps you create, communicate, and get things done effortlessly with groundbreaking privacy protections at every step.*
- 11-INCH LIQUID RETINA DISPLAY — The gorgeous Liquid Retina display features advanced technologies like P3 wide color, True Tone, and ultralow reflectivity, which make everything look stunning.*
How much more does the iPad Air cost?
The 128GB Wi-Fi iPad Air 11-inch costs $300 more than the 128GB Wi-Fi iPad A16 before tax. The price premium does not buy additional entry-level storage: both models start at 128GB.
| Configuration | iPad A16 | iPad Air M4 | Difference |
|---|---|---|---|
| 128GB Wi-Fi | From $449 | From $749 | $300 |
| Base cellular model | From $599 | From $899 for 11-inch Air | $300 |
| 13-inch Air Wi-Fi | Not available | From $949 | $500 above base iPad |
| 13-inch Air cellular | Not available | From $1,099 | $500 above base iPad cellular |
The A16 iPad reaches 512GB, while the Air reaches 1TB. Apple’s supplied pages establish the storage capacities and starting prices, but current prices for the 256GB and 512GB tiers should be checked at publication rather than inferred. At matching storage, compare the actual configuration prices instead of assuming that the Air’s premium remains exactly $300.
Cellular service is another separate cost. A cellular iPad contains mobile connectivity, but the tablet price does not provide unlimited data or a carrier plan. Consider the recurring plan cost, regional cellular availability, and whether a phone hotspot is sufficient.
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iPad versus iPad Air: specification comparison
| Feature | iPad 11-inch (A16) | iPad Air 11-inch (M4) | Why it matters |
|---|---|---|---|
| Starting Wi-Fi price | $449 | $749 | The Air costs $300 more at entry level |
| Entry storage | 128GB | 128GB | No base-storage advantage for the Air |
| Maximum storage | 512GB | 1TB | The Air suits larger media libraries and demanding apps |
| Chip | A16 | M4 | The Air has more performance headroom |
| CPU and GPU listing | 5-core CPU, 4-core GPU | 8-core CPU, 9-core GPU | The Air is better suited to sustained demanding work |
| Unified memory | Not specified on Apple’s cited page | 12GB | Useful for heavier multitasking and AI-capable workflows |
| Apple Intelligence | Not listed as supported | Supported | A major software and hardware distinction |
| Display | 2360×1640, 264 ppi, 500 nits | 2360×1640, 264 ppi, 500 nits | Equal sharpness and stated 11-inch brightness |
| Display color and construction | sRGB; not listed as fully laminated | P3, fully laminated, antireflective | The Air is better for drawing and color-sensitive work |
| Pencil support | Apple Pencil USB-C and first-generation Apple Pencil | Apple Pencil USB-C and Apple Pencil Pro | The Air supports Apple’s premium stylus |
| Cameras | 12MP rear, 4K; landscape 12MP Center Stage front | 12MP rear, 4K; landscape 12MP Center Stage front | Camera hardware is broadly similar |
| Port | USB-C, USB 2 up to 480Mb/s | USB-C, USB 3 up to 10Gb/s | The Air is much better for fast drives and media transfers |
| External display | One display up to 4K at 60Hz | One display up to 6K at 60Hz | The Air supports a higher-resolution monitor |
| Wireless | Wi-Fi 6, Bluetooth 5.3, 5G on cellular models | Wi-Fi 7, 5G on cellular models | The Air has newer Wi-Fi hardware |
| Wi-Fi weight | 1.05 lb | 1.02 lb | The Air is slightly lighter |
| Thickness | 0.28 inch | 0.24 inch | The Air is slightly thinner |
| Battery claim | Up to 10 hours | Up to 10 hours | Apple states no advantage for the Air |
The full specifications are available from Apple’s iPad comparison page. The table uses Apple’s published specifications rather than independent benchmark results, so it does not claim a specific percentage performance difference.
What is the performance difference between A16 and M4?
The M4 iPad Air is substantially more capable than the A16 iPad because the Air combines a newer M4 processor with an 8-core CPU, 9-core GPU, hardware-accelerated ray tracing, and 12GB of unified memory. The A16 iPad has a 5-core CPU, 4-core GPU, and 16-core Neural Engine.
The A16 remains appropriate for browsing, video streaming, reading, email, note-taking, schoolwork, video calls, ordinary productivity, and casual games. The A16 iPad should not be described as obsolete or incapable; the A16 makes the base iPad a value-oriented current model.
The M4 advantage becomes easier to justify for video editing, illustration, music production, 3D work, demanding games, large documents, coding environments, local AI features, and sustained multitasking. The Air also has more room for future demanding apps, although no precise number of additional software-support years can be promised.
Apple lists the M4 Air’s chip and memory specifications but the supplied research does not include independent benchmark testing. The practical conclusion is therefore about capability and headroom, not an unsupported benchmark percentage.
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- WHY IPAD — The 11-inch iPad is now more capable than ever with the superfast A16 chip, a stunning Liquid Retina display, advanced cameras, fast Wi-Fi, USB-C connector, and four gorgeous colors.* iPad delivers a powerful way to create, stay connected, and get things done.
- PERFORMANCE AND STORAGE — The superfast A16 chip delivers a boost in performance for your favorite activities. And with all-day battery life, iPad is perfect for playing immersive games and editing photos and videos.* Storage starts at 128GB and goes up to 512GB.*
- 11-INCH LIQUID RETINA DISPLAY — The gorgeous Liquid Retina display is an amazing way to watch movies or draw your next masterpiece.* True Tone adjusts the display to the color temperature of the room to make viewing comfortable in any light.
- IPADOS + APPS — iPadOS makes iPad more productive, intuitive, and versatile. With iPadOS, run multiple apps at once, use Apple Pencil to write in any text field with Scribble, and edit and share photos.* iPad comes with essential apps like Safari, Messages, and Keynote, with over a million more apps designed specifically for iPad available on the App Store.
- FAST WI-FI CONNECTIVITY — Wi-Fi 6 gives you fast access to your files, uploads, and downloads, and lets you seamlessly stream your favorite shows.
Is the iPad Air screen better than the iPad screen?
Yes, the iPad Air has the better 11-inch display panel even though the two models share the same 2360-by-1640 resolution, 264 ppi density, True Tone, and 500-nit maximum brightness.
| Display characteristic | iPad A16 | iPad Air M4 | Practical effect |
|---|---|---|---|
| Panel type | Liquid Retina IPS LED-backlit Multi-Touch | Liquid Retina IPS LED-backlit Multi-Touch | Both are conventional LCD tablet displays |
| Resolution and density | 2360×1640; 264 ppi | 2360×1640; 264 ppi | Text and interface sharpness are similar |
| Color gamut | sRGB | Wide P3 | P3 is more useful for photography, video, and illustration |
| Lamination | Not listed as fully laminated | Fully laminated | The image appears closer to the glass during drawing and tapping |
| Antireflective coating | No | Yes | The Air is more comfortable in bright rooms and classrooms |
| Apple Pencil hover | Not supported | Supported | The Air can preview a cursor or brush before contact |
| Refresh rate | No ProMotion listed | No ProMotion listed | Neither model has the 120Hz display of iPad Pro models |
Equal resolution does not make the screens identical. The Air’s full lamination makes drawing feel more direct, P3 color benefits color-sensitive work, and the antireflective coating helps in bright environments. For web browsing, reading, and ordinary streaming, the base iPad’s screen remains adequate.
How different are the iPad and iPad Air in size and portability?
The 11-inch Air is slightly thinner and lighter, but the difference is small: the Wi-Fi Air weighs 1.02 pounds and measures 0.24 inch thick, compared with 1.05 pounds and 0.28 inch for the Wi-Fi A16 iPad.
| Model | Dimensions | Wi-Fi weight | Best portability interpretation |
|---|---|---|---|
| iPad 11-inch (A16) | 9.79 × 7.07 × 0.28 inches | 1.05 lb | Portable and slightly thicker |
| iPad Air 11-inch (M4) | 9.74 × 7.02 × 0.24 inches | 1.02 lb | Nearly the same size, slightly thinner and lighter |
| iPad Air 13-inch (M4) | 11.04 × 8.46 × 0.24 inches | About 1.36 lb | More workspace, but less convenient for travel and one-handed use |
The 11-inch models fit the same general portability role. Buyers are more likely to notice the Air’s display construction and performance than its small weight advantage.
What changes with the 13-inch iPad Air?
The 13-inch iPad Air M4 changes the workspace rather than the performance tier: it uses the same M4 family of hardware but provides a 2732-by-2048 display, 600-nit brightness, and substantially more physical room for split-screen work, large documents, drawing, sheet music, and keyboard use.
The 13-inch Air measures 11.04 by 8.46 by 0.24 inches and weighs about 1.36 pounds. Choose the 13-inch version when a larger canvas matters more than compact travel. Do not choose it expecting it to be fundamentally faster than the 11-inch Air.
Which iPad has better Apple Intelligence support?
The iPad Air M4 supports Apple Intelligence, while Apple’s current specifications and comparison page do not list Apple Intelligence support for the iPad A16. That makes Apple Intelligence one of the clearest user-visible differences between the two tablets.
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- WHY IPAD — The 11-inch iPad is now more capable than ever with the superfast A16 chip, a stunning Liquid Retina display, advanced cameras, fast Wi-Fi, USB-C connector, and four gorgeous colors.* iPad delivers a powerful way to create, stay connected, and get things done.
- PERFORMANCE AND STORAGE — The superfast A16 chip delivers a boost in performance for your favorite activities. And with all-day battery life, iPad is perfect for playing immersive games and editing photos and videos.* Storage starts at 128GB and goes up to 512GB.*
- 11-INCH LIQUID RETINA DISPLAY — The gorgeous Liquid Retina display is an amazing way to watch movies or draw your next masterpiece.* True Tone adjusts the display to the color temperature of the room to make viewing comfortable in any light.
- IPADOS + APPS — iPadOS makes iPad more productive, intuitive, and versatile. With iPadOS, run multiple apps at once, use Apple Pencil to write in any text field with Scribble, and edit and share photos.* iPad comes with essential apps like Safari, Messages, and Keynote, with over a million more apps designed specifically for iPad available on the App Store.
- FAST WI-FI CONNECTIVITY — Wi-Fi 6 gives you fast access to your files, uploads, and downloads, and lets you seamlessly stream your favorite shows.
Which iPad is better for Apple Pencil?
The iPad Air M4 is the better drawing tablet because it supports Apple Pencil Pro, Pencil hover, and a fully laminated P3 display. The iPad A16 is the lower-cost choice for handwritten notes, PDF annotation, schoolwork, and basic sketching.
| Stylus | iPad A16 | iPad Air M4 | Best fit |
|---|---|---|---|
| Apple Pencil USB-C | Supported | Supported | Notes, annotation, and basic drawing |
| Apple Pencil 1st generation | Supported; USB-C to Apple Pencil Adapter required for pairing and charging | Not listed as compatible | Existing first-generation Pencil owners choosing the base iPad |
| Apple Pencil Pro | Not supported | Supported | Advanced drawing and Pencil Pro workflows |
Apple confirms the A16 Pencil compatibility and adapter requirement on its iPad buying page. The Air’s Pencil Pro compatibility is listed in Apple’s Air specifications. Do not buy Apple Pencil Pro for the A16 iPad.
Which keyboard works with each model?
The iPad A16 supports Magic Keyboard Folio, while the iPad Air M4 supports Magic Keyboard for iPad Air. The products are model-specific, so a buyer upgrading from the base iPad to the Air should not assume that an existing keyboard case will fit.
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A free scan shows the junk files, broken settings and background clutter dragging Windows down - then fixes them in one click.Free scan · Windows 10 & 11Magic Keyboard Folio includes a detachable keyboard, protective back panel, adjustable stand, trackpad, and 14-key function row. A keyboard can make either tablet more useful for schoolwork and light productivity, but the accessory cost narrows the apparent $300 device-price gap. Neither iPad should be treated as a universal laptop replacement: iPadOS multitasking, file management, specialist software, and accessory requirements still determine whether the workflow fits.
Check Apple’s iPad product page for the A16 keyboard category and Apple’s Air specifications for Air compatibility before ordering a case or keyboard.
Is USB-C the same on the iPad and iPad Air?
No. Both tablets use a USB-C connector, but the iPad A16 is limited to USB 2 transfer speeds up to 480Mb/s, while the iPad Air M4 supports USB 3 speeds up to 10Gb/s.
| Connection feature | iPad A16 | iPad Air M4 |
|---|---|---|
| USB transfer speed | USB 2, up to 480Mb/s | USB 3, up to 10Gb/s |
| External display | One display up to 4K at 60Hz | One display up to 6K at 60Hz |
| Best use | Charging, ordinary peripherals, and light file transfers | External SSDs, cameras, docks, large media files, and high-resolution monitors |
The Air is the clearly better choice for a desktop-style setup or frequent movement of large video and photo files. USB-C describes the connector shape, not the port’s speed or display capability. Apple’s A16 specifications and Air specifications document the different limits.
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Does the iPad Air have better wireless connectivity?
The iPad A16 supports Wi-Fi 6, Bluetooth 5.3, and 5G on cellular models. The iPad Air M4 supports Wi-Fi 7 and 5G on cellular models. Wi-Fi 7 is useful only when the router and network environment can take advantage of it; ordinary home broadband may show little practical difference.
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- WHY IPAD AIR — iPad Air with the Apple M4 chip packs even more performance into a beautiful design, and it comes in two portable sizes. It features Apple Intelligence* along with a stunning Liquid Retina display, Touch ID, advanced cameras, and Wi-Fi 7.*
- PERFORMANCE AND STORAGE — The M4 chip delivers advanced graphics and incredible performance for smooth multitasking and complex AI tasks. And with all-day battery life, you can keep working and playing wherever you go.* Choose up to 1TB of storage for apps, music, movies, and more.*
- IPADOS + APPS — Run apps and get more done with the game-changing capabilities and intuitive design of iPadOS. The flexible windowing system lets you control, organize, and manage your workflows like never before.
- APPLE INTELLIGENCE — Apple Intelligence is the personal intelligence system that helps you create, communicate, and get things done effortlessly with groundbreaking privacy protections at every step.*
- 13-INCH LIQUID RETINA DISPLAY — The gorgeous Liquid Retina display features advanced technologies like P3 wide color, True Tone, and ultralow reflectivity, which make everything look stunning.*
Apple’s current Air research page should be checked for the complete Bluetooth specification before publication or purchase. Cellular connectivity also requires a compatible carrier plan and does not automatically include mobile service.
Do the iPad and iPad Air have the same cameras and battery life?
The camera and stated battery specifications are broadly the same. Both models have a 12MP rear wide camera capable of 4K video, a landscape 12MP Center Stage front camera, Center Stage video calling, landscape stereo speakers, Touch ID, and Apple’s rating of up to 10 hours of Wi-Fi web browsing or video playback.
The Air is not automatically better for FaceTime, Zoom, Teams, scanning, or casual photography. The M4 can provide more processing headroom in demanding apps, but camera resolution and the main video-call features do not distinguish the two models.
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“Up to 10 hours” is Apple’s controlled estimate, not a guarantee for gaming, video editing, cellular use, or high screen brightness. The supplied research does not provide independent battery testing, so no real-world winner should be claimed.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.Which iPad should you buy for your use case?
| Use case | Recommended model | Why |
|---|---|---|
| Streaming, browsing, reading, email | iPad A16 | The lower price covers common tablet work well |
| Family tablet | iPad A16 | Good value for shared entertainment, recipes, calls, and basic apps |
| Student notes and schoolwork | Usually iPad A16 | Supports Apple Pencil USB-C and standard productivity; choose Air for heavier creative work |
| Professional drawing or illustration | iPad Air M4 | Pencil Pro, hover, lamination, and P3 display are meaningful advantages |
| Video editing, music, 3D, or demanding apps | iPad Air M4 | M4 performance headroom, 12GB unified memory, faster storage connectivity, and up to 1TB storage |
| Casual gaming | iPad A16 | Lower cost and suitable current hardware for ordinary games |
| Demanding gaming | iPad Air M4 | The M4 has a stronger GPU and hardware-accelerated ray tracing, though game performance varies by title |
| External SSD, camera, dock, or high-resolution monitor | iPad Air M4 | USB 3 up to 10Gb/s and external display support up to 6K at 60Hz |
| Remote work with split-screen documents | 11-inch Air or 13-inch Air | Choose 13-inch Air when workspace is more important than portability |
| Frequent travel | 11-inch iPad A16 or Air | The 11-inch size is portable; choose based on workload, not the small weight difference |
| Replacing an older iPad | Depends on existing accessories and needs | Verify Pencil, keyboard, case, software, and storage compatibility rather than assuming an upgrade is interchangeable |
When is the iPad A16 the better buy?
Buy the iPad A16 when price matters most and the tablet will handle browsing, streaming, reading, notes, video calls, schoolwork, email, recipes, social apps, or casual games. The A16 iPad also makes sense for a family device because paying for M4 performance, a P3 display, Pencil Pro, and USB 3 may produce little visible benefit in basic use.
The A16 is also the logical choice when Apple Pencil USB-C is sufficient, a 4K external monitor is enough, and fast external storage is not part of the workflow. The $300 starting-price saving can instead go toward storage, a protective case, a keyboard, or another household need.
When is the iPad Air M4 worth the extra $300?
The iPad Air M4 is worth the premium when the buyer will use at least one of its concrete advantages: Apple Intelligence, demanding creative apps, sustained multitasking, Apple Pencil Pro, a laminated P3 display, USB 3 file transfers, a 6K external display, more than 512GB of storage, or greater performance headroom for future demanding workloads.
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- Stunning 10.9-Inch Liquid Retina Display with True Tone and P3 Wide Color
- Apple M1 Chip with Neural Engine - 802.11AX Wi-Fi 6 - Stereo Landscape Audio
- 12MP Wide Camera, 12MP Ultra Wide Front Camera - Up to 10 Hours of Battery Life
- Touch ID for Secure Authentication - USB-C Connector for Charging and Accessories
- Support for Magic Keyboard, Smart Keyboard Folio, and Apple Pencil (2nd Generation)
Common buying mistakes to avoid
- Using outdated M3 information: The current Air in this comparison is the M4 model, not the older M3 version.
- Assuming equal resolution means equal screens: The Air adds P3 color, full lamination, antireflective coating, and Pencil hover.
- Assuming USB-C means equal speed: The A16 iPad reaches 480Mb/s, while the Air reaches 10Gb/s.
- Buying Apple Pencil Pro for the base iPad: Apple lists Pencil USB-C and first-generation Pencil for the A16; Pencil Pro is an Air feature.
- Expecting a 120Hz Air display: Neither the A16 iPad nor the Air lists ProMotion; 120Hz is an iPad Pro feature.
- Choosing the Air for cameras alone: The two models have closely matched 12MP rear and landscape 12MP Center Stage front cameras.
- Assuming every Apple Intelligence feature is universal: Hardware support still depends on iPadOS version, language, region, and rollout.
- Calling either tablet a complete laptop replacement: The answer depends on the required apps, file-management habits, multitasking needs, and accessories.
- Buying the wrong keyboard or case: The A16 uses Magic Keyboard Folio, while the Air uses Magic Keyboard for iPad Air.
- Comparing only the tablet price: Storage, keyboard, Pencil, case, cellular service, and USB-C accessories can materially change the final cost.
Should you buy the 11-inch or 13-inch iPad Air?
Choose the 11-inch iPad Air M4 for portability and the 13-inch iPad Air M4 for workspace. The 13-inch model is better for split-screen documents, sheet music, large drawing canvases, and keyboard-based work, while the 11-inch model is easier to carry and use away from a desk.
The 13-inch Air provides a 2732-by-2048 display and 600-nit brightness, but it is about 1.36 pounds and physically much larger. The 13-inch model is therefore a size-and-workspace decision, not a claim that the larger Air is faster than the 11-inch Air.
Frequently Asked Questions
Is the iPad Air worth the extra $300?
The iPad Air M4 is worth the extra $300 when you need Apple Intelligence, Apple Pencil Pro, demanding creative apps, faster USB 3 transfers, a P3 laminated display, more than 512GB of storage, or greater performance headroom. The iPad A16 is better value for browsing, streaming, notes, schoolwork, and ordinary family use.
Can the iPad 11-inch with A16 use Apple Pencil Pro?
No. Apple’s current compatibility listing supports Apple Pencil USB-C and first-generation Apple Pencil on the iPad 11-inch with A16; Apple Pencil Pro is supported by the iPad Air M4. First-generation Apple Pencil pairing and charging with the A16 requires a USB-C to Apple Pencil Adapter.
Does the iPad Air have a faster display than the iPad A16?
Neither the iPad A16 nor the iPad Air M4 lists Apple’s 120Hz ProMotion display. The Air’s display is better in other ways because it is fully laminated, supports wide P3 color, has an antireflective coating, and supports Apple Pencil hover.
Can both iPads connect to an external monitor?
Yes, but their limits differ. The iPad A16 supports one external display up to 4K at 60Hz, while the iPad Air M4 supports one external display up to 6K at 60Hz and has USB 3 transfer speeds up to 10Gb/s.
Which iPad is better for students?
The iPad A16 is the better student value for reading, notes, PDF annotation, video calls, and standard schoolwork. The iPad Air M4 is the better choice for students doing demanding creative work, using Apple Intelligence, drawing with Apple Pencil Pro, or connecting fast external storage and displays.
The Bottom Line
Bottom line: Buy the iPad 11-inch (A16) for the lowest-cost current iPad and everyday tasks. Buy the iPad Air 11-inch (M4) when performance headroom, Apple Intelligence, Pencil Pro, display quality, high-speed USB, or higher storage capacity matters. Choose the 13-inch Air M4 when a larger workspace is more valuable than compact portability.
