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1Fix the driver behind crashes, sound loss and screen glitches2Repair Windows errors before they cause bigger problems3Scan for outdated or missing drivers - takes under a minuteGreenhouse gas satellites measure light, not emissions directly. Instruments detect how gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane absorb sunlight or other radiation; algorithms use that spectral fingerprint to estimate gas abundance. Turning an observed atmospheric abundance or plume into an emissions rate requires additional analysis, and the method depends on the satellite and the question being asked.
What a greenhouse gas satellite actually measures
Most relevant satellite measurements begin with light that has interacted with the atmosphere. For sunlight-based instruments, the sensor records reflected sunlight after it has passed through the air and, in many cases, reflected off Earth’s surface. Greenhouse gas molecules absorb light at characteristic wavelengths, leaving patterns in the measured spectrum. Retrieval algorithms interpret those patterns alongside calibration data, atmospheric assumptions and quality checks to estimate the gas in the observed atmospheric column.
That estimate is not the same as measuring a pipe, facility or leak. It describes gas along the light path through the atmosphere, rather than identifying how much a particular source emitted. NASA/JPL makes this distinction explicitly for OCO-2: “However, the OCO-2 mission does not directly measure CO2 sources and sinks.”
How OCO-2 retrieves carbon dioxide
NASA/JPL’s OCO-2 measures reflected sunlight in two CO2 absorption bands and an oxygen band. The oxygen measurement helps characterize atmospheric pressure and the light path; the CO2 bands provide complementary information for estimating column-averaged dry-air CO2 mole fraction, or XCO2. A straight-down OCO-2 sounding footprint is about 3 km², according to NASA/JPL’s measurement-approach description.
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Clouds and thick aerosols can block or distort the light path, while terrain can make it difficult to retrieve a complete atmospheric column. OCO-2 uses information in the oxygen band to help identify clouds and aerosols and characterize the path taken by light.
How satellites go from gas abundance to emissions
An atmospheric column measurement is a concentration-related quantity, not an emission rate. For CO2, NASA/JPL says OCO-2 observations are combined with data-assimilation models to infer sources and sinks. The models use observations and atmospheric behavior to estimate where carbon dioxide is being added to or removed from the air; those source-and-sink estimates are not direct instrument readings.
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Methane plume measurements involve a different inference. A satellite may identify an enhancement of methane above the surrounding atmosphere. Estimating a source’s emission rate then requires analysis of the plume and wind conditions, along with an inversion method that connects the observed concentration pattern to an inferred rate. GHGSat describes its commercial methane product this way; that description applies to its approach and should not be assumed to describe every satellite methane product.
Why CO2 and methane satellites answer different questions
Satellites are designed for different gases, footprints and uses. A broad carbon-cycle mission and an instrument intended to target a methane source do not provide interchangeable measurements. ESA’s MEDUSA project describes a heterogeneous methane-observation landscape that includes broad, city-scale flux mapping as well as facility-level targeting. Its scope lists TROPOMI, GHGSat, EMIT, EnMAP, PRISMA, Landsat 8, Sentinel-2, Sentinel-3 and GOES, but their observation characteristics, spatial scales and product maturity differ.
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| System or approach | What it measures or estimates | Scale or coverage stated in the cited material | Important qualification |
|---|---|---|---|
| NASA/JPL OCO-2 | Reflected sunlight used to retrieve XCO2; models use observations to infer sources and sinks. | About 3 km² per straight-down sounding footprint; near-global coverage of the sunlit Earth over a 16-day repeat cycle. Mission objectives address regional CO2 estimates at scales of 1,000 km or greater. | It does not directly measure emissions from a particular source. Clouds, aerosols and terrain can affect retrievals. |
| GHGSat commercial methane product | Methane absorption in short-wave infrared; the provider says it combines concentration data with wind fields in atmospheric inversion algorithms to estimate emission rates. | Provider states a facility-level satellite detection threshold of 100 kg/hour. | The threshold is a vendor-reported specification, not a universal satellite threshold or a guarantee for every site and observation condition. |
| Other methane-observing systems in ESA MEDUSA’s scope | Varies by instrument and product, from broad flux mapping to targeted observations. | Varies; ESA describes a heterogeneous set of systems, including TROPOMI, EMIT, EnMAP, PRISMA, Landsat 8, Sentinel-2, Sentinel-3 and GOES. | The cited project overview does not establish a single common footprint, threshold or product maturity across these systems. |
OCO-2’s 16-day figure describes its near-global repeat coverage of the sunlit Earth, not a guarantee that every location will yield a usable measurement on every pass. Likewise, a provider’s stated facility-level methane threshold should not be read as a universal minimum for all instruments, locations or weather conditions.
What can prevent a useful observation or change an estimate
- Clouds and aerosols: These can obstruct or distort the light path used for a column retrieval.
- Surface and terrain: Uneven terrain can complicate a complete CO2 column measurement. For methane observations, NASA’s assessment also notes surface-albedo variability as a limitation in some analyses.
- Wind and plume behavior: A methane enhancement alone is not an emissions rate. Wind information and inversion assumptions influence the conversion from observed plume to estimated flux.
- Timing and sparse observations: A satellite only observes a place at particular times. Emissions may not be present during an observation, and gaps between usable observations can make short-term changes hard to establish.
- Product and instrument differences: Coverage, spatial scale, observation conditions and data availability differ across systems, so performance cannot be reduced to one general ranking.
How validation tests what satellite results can support
Validation compares satellite retrievals or inferred rates with independent measurements, which may come from ground networks, towers, aircraft or controlled releases. OCO-2’s mission objectives include seasonal comparisons between space-based and ground-based XCO2 retrievals to identify and correct systematic bias. ESA’s MEDUSA project aims to intercompare products and validate emissions products where possible, including through controlled releases.
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NASA’s Commercial Satellite Data Acquisition program (CSDA) assessment, effective 2024, illustrates why results must be tied to a specific study and use case. In one study, GHGSat observations quantified fossil emissions in only one of five requested regions; clouds, surface-albedo variability or missed observations contributed to limitations. In a landfill study, yearly averaged comparisons with tower and aircraft estimates were consistent within uncertainties, but sparse observations left monthly-to-seasonal variability unclear. The report also found that GHGSat data distinguished between competing inventory models for about half of the landfills examined. These are findings from those analyses, not universal performance rates for methane satellites.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.What a satellite detection does—and does not—show
A detection or retrieved concentration is evidence about the atmosphere observed at a particular place and time. It is not, by itself, an annual emissions total, proof of a regulatory violation or a definitive identification of the source’s cause. Those conclusions require suitable analysis and corroborating evidence. For an emissions estimate, readers should check whether a reported figure is an instrument observation, a retrieved column abundance, a plume enhancement or a model-derived flux—and what uncertainties, observation dates and validation apply.
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