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An SoC, or system on a chip, is a single integrated circuit that combines a processor with the other functions a device needs to operate, such as memory access, input and output, and peripheral interfaces. Many of the chips inside phones, routers, cameras, appliances and industrial controllers are SoCs. “SoC” describes a design approach rather than a fixed parts list, so the exact contents differ from one product to the next.
What goes onto an SoC
Arm’s glossary describes SoC development in terms of a set of building blocks: CPUs, memory subsystems, I/O, peripherals, accelerators and interconnect (Arm, “What is SoC Development?”). A given chip uses some of these and leaves out others, depending on what the device has to do.
Processing elements
The CPU is the central processing element. It executes the instructions that run firmware or an operating system. An SoC may contain one CPU or several, and some include other processing elements alongside them.
Memory subsystem
An SoC holds instructions and data in memory that is either built into the chip or reached through a memory interface on it. Which memory is integrated and which is external is a per-product decision. Figures that matter, such as capacity and interface type, come from the individual chip’s datasheet rather than from the SoC category.
#1 Best Overall
- Powerful Processor: Equipped with ESP32-S3R8 Xtensa 32-bit LX7 dual-core processor, up to 240MHz main frequency. Supports 2.4GHz Wi-Fi (802.11 b/g/n) and Bluetooth 5 (LE), with onboard antenna. Built-in 512KB of SRAM and 384KB ROM, with onboard 8MB PSRAM and an external 16MB Flash memory.
- Driver and Touch LCD: Onboard 1.83inch IPS Capacitive Touch Display, 240 × 284 resolution, 65K color. Built-in ST7789P display driver and CST816D capacitive touch chip, using SPI and I2C communication respectively, effectively saving the IO resources. Adopts Type-C port to improve user convenience and device compatibility.
- Supports Offline Speech recognition and AI Speech Interaction: Allows access to online large model platforms such as ChatGPT, DeepSeek, Doubao, etc. Onboard ES8311 audio codec chip and ES7210 echo cancellation circuit to meet daily audio application scenarios.
- Multifunctional Sensor: Onboard QMI8658 6-axis IMU (3-axis accelerometer and 3-axis gyroscope) for detecting motion gestures, counting steps, etc; PCF85063 RTC chip connected to the battry via the AXP2101 for uninterrupted power supply; Onboard PWR and BOOT programmable buttons for easy custom function development.
- Rich Peripheral Interface: Reserved 1 × I2C, 1 × UART and 1 × USB pads for external device connection and debugging, enabling flexible peripheral configuration. Onboard TF card slot for extended storage and fast data transfer, suitable for applications such as data recording and media playback, simplifying circuit design.
I/O and peripherals
These blocks connect the chip to the rest of the device: sensors, displays, storage, network links, buttons and power management. Their presence is what lets an SoC drive real-world hardware without a board full of support chips. Microchip Technology’s glossary states the idea this way:
“An SoC is a computer system embedded into a single chip that integrates a processor, key peripherals/interfaces and system functions, so it can run firmware, and often an OS, and directly control real-world I/O without needing lots of companion chips.” (Microchip Technology, “What is a System-on-Chip (SoC) FPGA?”)
Rank #2
2pcs NRF51822 Sensor
- 2pcs NRF51822 sensor
That wording is one vendor’s definition, not a formal standard. It is useful because it names the properties most SoC designs share.
Accelerators
Accelerators are dedicated blocks that handle specific work faster or more efficiently than a general-purpose CPU. Graphics processors, digital signal processors and AI accelerators are common examples. None of them is mandatory. A simple controller SoC may have no accelerator at all, while a media device may include several.
Rank #3
- Powerful Processing Core: Equipped with a single-core ARM Cortex-A7 32-bit processor, featuring integrated NEON and FPU for efficient computation and optimized performance.
- Advanced NPU for High Precision: Built-in Rockchip self-developed 4th generation NPU, supporting int4, int8, and int16 hybrid quantization, delivering 1 TOPS of computing power for enhanced AI capabilities.
- High-Quality Imaging: Features Rockchip's third-generation ISP3.2 with 8MP support and advanced image enhancement algorithms, including HDR, WDR, and multi-level noise reduction for superior image quality.
- Efficient Encoding Performance: Supports intelligent encoding mode and adaptive stream saving, reducing bit rates by over 50% compared to conventional CBR mode while maintaining high-definition image quality with smaller file sizes.
- Robust Memory Capacity: Built-in 16-bit 256MB DRAM DDR3L, offering the necessary memory bandwidth to handle demanding applications and ensure seamless performance.
Interconnect
The interconnect carries traffic between the blocks above. Without it, a processor could not reach memory or peripherals on the same chip. It determines how blocks share bandwidth and how they are organized.
How the blocks communicate
Arm describes AMBA as a freely available, open standard family for connecting and managing functional blocks in an SoC (Arm, “AMBA”). Arm’s broader system architecture material covers the same design area (Arm, “System Architecture Design”). AMBA is a widely referenced example, not a requirement. Other interconnect designs exist, and vendor-specific interconnects are common in commercial chips. When you read a datasheet, look for the bus or interconnect it names rather than assuming AMBA.
Rank #4
- ESP32-P4-NANO development board based on ESP32-P4 chip, high-performance MCU with RISC-V 32-bit dual-core and single-core processors. 128 KB HP ROM, 16 KB LP ROM, 768 KB HP L2MEM, 32 KB LP Static RAM, 8 KB TCM. 32MB PSRAM in the chip's package, with onboard 16MB Nor Flash
- Onboard ESP32-C6-MINI module to extend 2.4GHz Wi-Fi 6 and Bluetooth 5/BLE for ESP32-P4, using SDIO interface protocol for communication, stable connection and efficient transmission. Reserved PoE Module header, more flexible for Power Supply
- Commonly used peripherals such as MIPI-CSI, MIPI-DSI, USB 2.0 OTG, Ethernet, SDIO 3.0 TF card slot, microphone, speaker header and RTC battery header, etc. Adtaping 2*2*13 GPIO headers with 28 x programmable GPIOs
- Powerful image and voice processing capability. Provides image and voice processing interfaces including JPEG Codec, Pixel Processing Accelerator, Image Signal Processor, H264 encoder
- Security features: Secure Boot, Flash Encryption, cryptographic accelerators, and TRNG. Additionally, hardware access protection mechanisms help to enable Access Permission Management and Privilege Separation
SoC, CPU architecture and microarchitecture
These three terms are often confused because they all sit near the processor, but they describe different things.
- SoC describes system integration: which blocks sit on one chip. It says nothing about the instruction set inside the CPU.
- CPU architecture is the set of software-visible rules a processor follows, including its instruction set, exception behavior and memory model. Arm’s CPU architecture material covers these rules (Arm, “Arm CPU Architecture”).
- CPU microarchitecture is one particular implementation of an architecture. Pipeline depth, cache design and similar choices fall here. Two chips can implement the same architecture with different microarchitectures, and both can be SoCs.
What differentiates an SoC from a microcontroller?
The two categories overlap in everyday use, and no single rule separates them. Arm’s FAQ describes typical SoCs as having more powerful CPUs, integrated memory, multimedia accelerators and connectivity than typical microcontrollers. Treat that as a tendency. A high-end microcontroller can look like a small SoC, and a simple SoC can be modest in every respect.
Best Value
- with pre-soldered header Raspberry Pi Pico. RP2040 microcontroller chip designed by Raspberry Pi in the United Kingdom
- Dual-core Arm Cortex M0+ processor, flexible clock running up to 133 MHz. 264KB of SRAM, and 2MB of on-board Flash memory.
- Castellated module allows soldering direct to carrier boards. USB 1.1 with device and host support. Low-power sleep and dormant modes. Drag-and-drop programming using mass storage over USB. 26 × multi-function GPIO pins.
- 2 × SPI, 2 × I2C, 2 × UART, 3 × 12-bit ADC, 16 × controllable PWM channels.Accurate clock and timer on-chip.Temperature sensor.
- Accelerated floating-point libraries on-chip.8 × Programmable I/O (PIO) state machines for custom peripheral support
| Characteristic | Typical microcontroller | Typical SoC |
|---|---|---|
| Processor | Usually a modest CPU focused on control tasks | Often a more capable CPU, sometimes several |
| Memory | Typically integrated on the chip | Integrated memory or memory interfaces, depending on the product |
| Accelerators | Usually limited or absent | Frequently includes graphics, media or AI blocks |
| Connectivity | Basic peripheral interfaces | Often broader, including network and multimedia interfaces |
| Typical use | Embedded control with a narrow, fixed job | Devices that run a full OS or demanding workloads |
SoC FPGAs: a specialized case
An SoC FPGA is an SoC that also contains programmable logic. Microchip describes the division of labor: the processor runs embedded software, while the FPGA fabric implements custom I/O, acceleration and real-time interfaces (Microchip Technology, “What is a System-on-Chip (SoC) FPGA?”). That makes an SoC FPGA useful when a device needs an interface or function that no fixed peripheral provides. Understanding ordinary SoCs does not require knowing how FPGAs work.
Comparing two real SoCs
When you compare two chips, line them up on the same axes:
- which processing elements and accelerators are integrated;
- the memory subsystem and external memory interfaces;
- the I/O, peripheral and connectivity interfaces included;
- the intended workload and software environment;
- implementation trade-offs such as power, performance and die area, where the chip vendor publishes them.
This article does not rank or specify individual chip models. Vendor datasheets and reference manuals are the reliable source for those numbers.
Further reading and hands-on options
Arm’s introductory resource Fundamentals of System-on-Chip Design is available as a PDF (Arm, Fundamentals of System-on-Chip Design). For hands-on experimentation, an SoC FPGA development board is the relevant category, since these boards pair a processor with programmable logic. Microchip describes FPGA prototyping and validation as typical uses of such parts. Check current vendor listings for any specific board.
Quick Recap
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