Data centers use electricity to run servers, storage, and networking equipment, plus the cooling and power-distribution systems that keep that IT equipment operating. Water is chiefly tied to cooling at sites that use evaporative heat rejection; electricity generation can add a separate, indirect water footprint. To compare impacts fairly, distinguish those boundaries, specify geography and year, and report total use alongside efficiency ratios.
What do data centers use electricity and water for?
A data center’s electricity use has two broad parts: energy consumed by IT equipment and energy used by facility infrastructure. The first runs digital services; the second supports the equipment and moves heat out of the building.
IT equipment: compute, storage, and networking
- Servers perform computation, including the processing behind websites, cloud services, and AI workloads.
- Storage systems write, retain, and retrieve data.
- Networking equipment moves data within the facility and between it and external networks.
In the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) 2025 update, networking accounted for 4.5% of U.S. data-center electricity in 2024. That is a modeled U.S. estimate, not a universal share for every facility. DOE/LBNL, United States Data Center Energy Usage Report: 2025 Update
Facility infrastructure: cooling and power delivery
Facility infrastructure includes cooling and the equipment that distributes power to IT systems. Electrical equipment also loses some energy as heat during power conversion and distribution. In the DOE/LBNL 2025 modeled estimates, infrastructure represented 31% of total U.S. data-center electricity in 2024, down from 36% in 2018. Those figures describe a national estimate, not a fixed overhead rate for an individual data center.
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Cooling’s share also varies by facility type and efficiency. The International Energy Agency (IEA) reports a range from about 7% of electricity in efficient hyperscale data centers to more than 30% in less-efficient enterprise data centers. This variation is one reason a single assumed cooling percentage is not a reliable way to estimate every site’s use. IEA, Energy and AI: Energy demand from AI
Water: cooling at the site and electricity generation upstream
Water use depends in part on how a facility rejects heat. In evaporative cooling, water evaporates to carry heat away, so the system needs makeup water. Cooling towers can also discharge blowdown to remove water containing concentrated dissolved minerals. The cooling design, climate, and operating conditions all affect the balance between water and electricity use. DOE Federal Energy Management Program, Cooling Water Efficiency Opportunities for Federal Data Centers
There is also water consumed beyond the facility: power plants may use water to generate the electricity a data center buys. LBNL distinguishes this electricity-related water from water used directly at the site. The two amounts should not be added or compared without making the accounting boundary clear. LBNL, 2024 United States Data Center Energy Usage Report, section 4
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How large is data-center electricity use?
Figures are meaningful only with their geography, year, and status attached. The IEA estimated that data centers worldwide used 415 terawatt-hours (TWh) of electricity in 2024, about 1.5% of global electricity. This is a global estimate for that year. IEA, Energy and AI: Energy demand from AI
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For the United States, the DOE/LBNL 2025 update’s central modeled forecast is that data centers could use 11.8% of total U.S. electricity by 2030. Its modeled scenario range is 9.5% to 15.3%. These are forecasts, not observed consumption or a certainty about what will happen. DOE, Powering America’s AI Future—Data Center Resource Hub
The earlier DOE/LBNL 2024 report estimated U.S. data centers used 176 TWh, or about 4.4% of U.S. electricity, in 2023. It projected 325–580 TWh by 2028, but that projection has been superseded for current U.S. forecasting by the 2025 update. DOE, announcement of the 2024 U.S. data-center report, December 20, 2024
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How can you compare their impact?
Start by asking what is counted, then pair efficiency measures with absolute use and local context. A low ratio does not, by itself, show that a facility uses little energy or water, or that its water use is harmless in its location.
1. Match the accounting boundary
- IT electricity: energy used by servers, storage, and networking equipment.
- Facility electricity: total site electricity, including IT equipment and infrastructure such as cooling and power distribution.
- Direct or site water: water consumed at the data center, commonly associated with cooling.
- Indirect or source water: water consumed in generating electricity supplied to the data center.
Do not compare an IT-only electricity figure with a full-facility figure, or direct water with a total that also includes electricity-related water, as if they measured the same thing.
2. Pair totals with efficiency ratios
Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE) compares total facility energy with IT equipment energy. A lower PUE indicates less facility energy overhead relative to IT energy, but the ratio does not state the facility’s absolute electricity use.
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Water Usage Effectiveness (WUE) compares water consumption with IT electricity and is usually reported in liters per kilowatt-hour (L/kWh). Check whether the reported water numerator is direct/site water or includes indirect/source water. A WUE value without that boundary is difficult to compare fairly.
For a useful comparison, report total electricity and water for the same period as the ratios, and identify the WUE boundary and denominator. PUE and WUE describe efficiency; they are not substitutes for totals or measures of local water stress. DOE Federal Energy Management Program, Cooling Water Efficiency Opportunities for Federal Data Centers
3. Include cooling design and operating conditions
Identify the heat-rejection approach—such as an evaporative cooling tower, air-side economizing, direct liquid cooling, or another arrangement. Different systems can change both electricity and water use. Outdoor conditions and how the system is operated also matter, so a facility’s design label alone does not establish its actual consumption.
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4. Put the grid and location in context
Indirect water use depends on how electricity is generated; direct water use has consequences shaped by local conditions. National and global averages cannot tell you the impact of a specific site. For comparisons intended to assess local effects, identify the facility’s location and keep site water distinct from water associated with its electricity supply.
5. Label the year and whether a figure is observed or forecast
State the reporting organization, geography, year, and whether a number is measured, modeled as a historical estimate, or forecast under a scenario. For example, the IEA’s 415 TWh figure is a 2024 global estimate, while DOE/LBNL’s 11.8% figure is the central value in a modeled 2030 U.S. forecast. They have different geographies and periods, so they are not directly comparable measures.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.What the available figures do—and do not—show
The published figures establish substantial electricity demand and show that facility overhead, cooling, and networking are relevant parts of the total. They do not establish one current global water total that can be fairly applied to all data centers, or a comparable ranking of local water impacts. A meaningful water comparison needs a stated boundary, cooling information, electricity-supply context, and location-specific conditions.
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