The Page Object Model (POM) keeps Selenium locators and page-specific actions in Python classes, while tests describe scenarios and assert the results. Give each page or meaningful reusable UI component an object, pass it the WebDriver, and use condition-based waits when the page updates asynchronously.
What the Page Object Model does
A page object is an interface between a test and a page or UI area. It owns the locators and useful operations for that area; the test uses those operations to carry out a scenario. For example, a login test can call login_as() instead of repeating username, password, and submit selectors in every test.
This separation reduces duplicated UI code: when markup changes, you can often update the locator or interaction in one place. Selenium describes page objects as models of areas of an application’s UI and recommends keeping verifications in test code, not in page objects. See the Selenium Page Object Models guide.
Set up a small Python project
Install Selenium in your project environment:
python -m pip install seleniumRecent Selenium versions can manage supported browser drivers through Selenium Manager. If your environment requires a separately installed driver, make sure it is compatible with the browser you intend to run. The example below uses Chrome and a demonstration URL; replace the URL and selectors with those from your application.
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project/
pages/
__init__.py
login_page.py
test_login.pyCreate a page object
Put the login form’s locators and interactions in pages/login_page.py. This example waits until the form is visible before entering credentials, then waits for a post-login heading to appear. Change the selectors and expected text to match your site.
from selenium.webdriver.common.by import By
from selenium.webdriver.support import expected_conditions as EC
from selenium.webdriver.support.ui import WebDriverWait
class LoginPage:
URL = "https://example.com/login"
USERNAME = (By.ID, "username")
PASSWORD = (By.ID, "password")
SUBMIT = (By.CSS_SELECTOR, "button[type='submit']")
DASHBOARD_HEADING = (By.CSS_SELECTOR, "h1")
def __init__(self, driver):
self.driver = driver
self.wait = WebDriverWait(driver, 10)
def open(self):
self.driver.get(self.URL)
self.wait.until(EC.visibility_of_element_located(self.USERNAME))
return self
def login_as(self, username, password):
self.wait.until(EC.visibility_of_element_located(self.USERNAME)).send_keys(username)
self.driver.find_element(*self.PASSWORD).send_keys(password)
self.wait.until(EC.element_to_be_clickable(self.SUBMIT)).click()
return DashboardPage(self.driver)
class DashboardPage:
DASHBOARD_HEADING = (By.CSS_SELECTOR, "h1")
def __init__(self, driver):
self.driver = driver
self.wait = WebDriverWait(driver, 10)
def heading_text(self):
heading = self.wait.until(
EC.visibility_of_element_located(self.DASHBOARD_HEADING)
)
return heading.textThe By locator tuples make the locator strategy and value explicit. Selenium supports ID, name, CSS selector, link text, partial link text, class name, tag name, and XPath; choose a locator that is clear and stable for your application’s markup. Prefer test-specific attributes when your team provides them. See the Selenium locator strategies reference.
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Write the test and keep assertions there
A test creates the browser, runs the user-level operation, and verifies the expected outcome. Save this as test_login.py; set credentials through environment variables or your test configuration rather than committing real secrets.
import os
from selenium import webdriver
from pages.login_page import LoginPage
def test_login_shows_dashboard():
driver = webdriver.Chrome()
try:
dashboard = LoginPage(driver).open().login_as(
os.environ["TEST_USERNAME"],
os.environ["TEST_PASSWORD"],
)
assert dashboard.heading_text() == "Dashboard"
finally:
driver.quit()The equality assertion belongs in the test because it expresses the expected behavior. A page object may perform a narrow readiness check when opening a page, but avoid hiding ordinary test expectations inside its methods. Selenium’s Python bindings Page Objects tutorial shows a similar page-object and test flow; its particular folder and locator-class arrangement is one possible organization, not a required framework.
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Wait for the condition the next action needs
A navigation call returning does not guarantee that JavaScript-rendered controls are ready. Use WebDriverWait(driver, timeout).until(condition) for the needed state, such as presence, visibility, or clickability. In the example, the form must be visible before typing and the submit button clickable before clicking.
- Presence: the element exists in the DOM, but may not be visible.
- Visibility: the element exists and is displayed.
- Clickability: the element is visible and enabled for interaction.
Fixed sleeps delay every run regardless of readiness and can still be too short when the application is slow. Selenium’s Waiting Strategies guide explains how asynchronous changes can cause race conditions and flaky tests. Keep a consistent wait policy; Selenium cautions that mixing implicit and explicit waits can produce unpredictable timing behavior.
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Choose page and component boundaries
Use one object per meaningful page
A page class should group locators and operations that belong to that page, such as searching, submitting a form, or reading a visible status. Give methods names that describe user tasks rather than merely wrapping a low-level call like find_element().
Extract repeated regions when they have behavior
If a navigation bar, product card, or other coherent region appears on multiple pages and has meaningful operations, model it as a component object and compose it into the relevant page objects. This keeps repeated behavior in one place. Avoid making classes for trivial fragments that add indirection without reuse.
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Keep locator organization understandable
For a small project, locator tuples can live directly on their page class. A separate locator class or module can help when it improves readability, but it is not a requirement. The key is to keep knowledge of a page’s structure close to the code that uses it rather than scattering selectors across tests.
Common problems and fixes
- Element not found: confirm the locator matches the current page, that the page has loaded the relevant content, and that the element is not inside an iframe. Wait for an appropriate condition before locating or interacting with dynamic content.
- Click intercepted or element not clickable: wait for clickability and check whether an overlay, animation, or consent dialog covers the control. Do not treat a fixed delay as the default fix.
- Flaky tests after navigation: navigation completion may precede client-side rendering. Wait for the specific next-page element or state that the test needs.
- Many tests break after a selector change: move duplicated selectors into the owning page or component object, then update that locator in one place.
- Page objects become hard to maintain: split out distinct pages or reusable regions when the class is accumulating unrelated responsibilities. Keep assertions about scenario outcomes in the tests.
- Waits behave inconsistently: review whether implicit and explicit waits are mixed; use explicit waits tied to the condition needed for each asynchronous interaction.
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