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Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is public-key cryptography designed to resist attacks from sufficiently capable quantum computers. NIST finalized three principal PQC standards on August 13, 2024: ML-KEM for establishing shared secrets, and ML-DSA and SLH-DSA for digital signatures. NIST says these standards can and should be put into use now; organizations should begin identifying and replacing vulnerable cryptography rather than waiting for another standard.
Why does quantum computing affect today’s cryptography?
Many systems rely on public-key algorithms such as RSA and elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC) to establish keys or authenticate digital signatures. A sufficiently capable quantum computer could threaten the mathematical problems on which these algorithms depend. That does not mean current systems have suddenly stopped working: the concern is that the public-key methods used to protect them may not remain secure against future quantum attacks.
Migration is a multi-year engineering and planning effort. Cryptography is embedded in protocols, products, devices, certificates, software libraries, and operational processes, and organizations need to find those uses before they can replace or update them. Data that must remain confidential for a long time also deserves attention: an organization should consider whether information intercepted today could still be sensitive when quantum-capable attacks become practical.
“Quantum-resistant” describes cryptography designed to withstand attacks from sufficiently capable quantum computers. It is not a guarantee that an algorithm is risk-free or mathematically unbreakable.
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What jobs do a KEM and a digital signature perform?
Key establishment: agree on a secret
A key-encapsulation mechanism (KEM) lets two parties establish a shared secret over a public channel. The KEM does not encrypt all of their conversation as a bulk cipher would. Instead, the parties use the established secret with symmetric cryptography for communication encryption and authentication. ML-KEM is NIST’s standardized PQC option for this key-establishment role.
Digital signatures: verify who signed and whether content changed
A digital signature lets a verifier check the integrity of data and authenticate the signer. It serves a different purpose from a KEM: signatures do not establish the shared secret used to encrypt a communication. ML-DSA and SLH-DSA are the two finalized NIST PQC signature standards described here.
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What are the three finalized NIST PQC algorithms?
| Algorithm | Standard | Primitive and main job | Mathematical basis | NIST positioning |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ML-KEM | FIPS 203 | Key-encapsulation mechanism; establishes a shared secret for subsequent symmetric encryption and authentication | Module Learning with Errors (module-lattice) | Primary general key-establishment standard |
| ML-DSA | FIPS 204 | Digital signature; generates and verifies signatures | Module-lattice | Primary signature standard |
| SLH-DSA | FIPS 205 | Digital signature; generates and verifies stateless hash-based signatures | Hash-based; based on SPHINCS+ | Signature alternative using a different mathematical approach |
NIST’s selection effort assessed 82 algorithms submitted from 25 countries. The standardization effort took eight years, according to NIST in 2024. Those figures describe the breadth and duration of the standards effort; they do not by themselves establish that any implementation is secure or suitable for a particular system.
What is ML-KEM, and how should its parameter sets be chosen?
ML-KEM, standardized in FIPS 203, is based on the Module Learning with Errors problem. Its function is to establish a shared secret, not to replace an ordinary bulk-encryption cipher. Once the secret has been established, symmetric cryptography handles the communication encryption and authentication.
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FIPS 203 defines three ML-KEM parameter sets: ML-KEM-512, ML-KEM-768, and ML-KEM-1024. They offer different security and performance trade-offs, but the names alone are not enough to choose one for every deployment. The appropriate set depends on the system’s security requirements, performance limits, and implementation context. The material available here does not establish comparative key sizes, speeds, or a universal recommendation, so use the standard and the requirements of the system being migrated rather than inferring a choice from the number in the name.
How do ML-DSA and SLH-DSA differ?
ML-DSA: the primary module-lattice signature standard
ML-DSA (FIPS 204) generates and verifies digital signatures using a module-lattice mathematical basis. It is NIST’s primary PQC signature standard in this group.
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SLH-DSA: a hash-based signature alternative
SLH-DSA (FIPS 205) is a stateless hash-based signature standard based on SPHINCS+. It performs the same broad signature job—signing and verification—but relies on a different mathematical approach from ML-DSA. That difference makes it a source of algorithmic diversity, rather than simply another name for ML-DSA or a replacement for ML-KEM.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.When should an organization migrate?
NIST’s guidance is to start now. Its project guidance says the finalized standards “can and should be put into use now,” and NIST mathematician Dustin Moody urged system administrators to begin integration because full integration takes time. NIST IR 8547 sets out a transition timeline to deprecate and ultimately remove quantum-vulnerable algorithms from NIST standards by 2035, with high-risk systems transitioning earlier. That is a NIST standards transition endpoint, not a reason for an organization to postpone planning until 2035.
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- Inventory cryptographic use. Find where RSA, ECC, and other quantum-vulnerable algorithms are used across applications, protocols, infrastructure, products, and third-party services. Record what each use protects and which systems depend on it.
- Prioritize by risk and data lifetime. Identify high-risk systems and information that must remain confidential for many years. Set earlier transition work for those systems, consistent with NIST’s direction that high-risk systems move sooner.
- Map each use to the correct replacement function. For key establishment, assess ML-KEM; for signatures, assess ML-DSA and, where a different mathematical approach is valuable, SLH-DSA. A signature standard does not replace a KEM, and a KEM does not supply digital signatures.
- Update protocols and products. Determine which protocol, software, device, certificate, or supplier changes are needed to support the new algorithms. Coordinate dependencies and test that the updated systems interoperate and continue to meet operational requirements.
- Plan for crypto-agility. Design migration processes so algorithms and implementations can be updated as standards and organizational needs change. Keep ownership, dependencies, and transition status visible so future replacements do not require rediscovering every cryptographic use.
- Track remaining standardization work. Keep an eye on NIST’s ongoing work on additional algorithms, but do not make that work a prerequisite for starting with finalized standards.
Are Falcon and HQC finalized replacements?
No. NIST lists Falcon and HQC as undergoing additional standardization work as possible backup or alternative algorithms. They are not the three finalized FIPS standards, and their ongoing status is not a reason to delay evaluation of ML-KEM, ML-DSA, or SLH-DSA. An organization can follow their progress while planning around the standards NIST has already finalized.
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