Biogas can be used to make hydrogen because its methane can react with steam in a reformer to produce hydrogen-rich synthesis gas. But raw biogas is not automatically suitable: methane and carbon-dioxide levels vary by source, and contaminants such as hydrogen sulfide and siloxanes can damage equipment or harm catalysts. Suitability depends on measuring the actual gas, cleaning it to the selected process’s requirements, and confirming the treated gas meets them.
What makes biogas a potential hydrogen feedstock?
Biogas is produced from organic waste streams, including landfill gas and digester gas. Methane (CH4) is the useful component for conventional steam-methane reforming; carbon dioxide (CO2) is also a major part of the mixture. Because composition depends on the source and operating conditions, general ranges are orientation—not a guaranteed specification for an individual plant.
| Biogas source | Methane (CH4) | Carbon dioxide (CO2) |
|---|---|---|
| Landfill gas | 44–68% | 24–40% |
| Sewage digester gas | 58–63% | 34–39% |
| Farm digester gas | 55–58% | 28–37% |
These ranges are from a 2017 U.S. Department of Energy report; its table adapts data from Rasi et al. (2007) and other cited studies. The DOE notes that landfill gas composition can vary seasonally, particularly when landfilled material contains a higher organic fraction from yard waste. U.S. Department of Energy, Biofuels and Bioproducts from Wet and Gaseous Waste Streams (2017).
How methane is converted into hydrogen
In steam-methane reforming (SMR), methane reacts with high-temperature steam and heat to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen:
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CH4 + H2O (+ heat) → CO + 3H2
This is a simplified reaction, not a complete description of a commercial plant. The reformer produces hydrogen-rich synthesis gas, not necessarily hydrogen purified to the specification needed for a particular end use. Downstream conversion and separation steps determine the final product. Results for pure methane should not be assumed to apply unchanged to raw biogas with CO2 and trace contaminants. U.S. Department of Energy: Hydrogen Production: Natural Gas Reforming.
Which impurities can make biogas unsuitable?
Trace compounds can create problems even when methane is present in useful quantities. The contaminants that matter, and the levels a process can tolerate, depend on the gas and the equipment downstream.
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- Hydrogen sulfide (H2S): Toxic and corrosive, it can also poison reforming catalysts. DOE describes scrubbers and iron sponge—where iron oxide reacts with sulfur compounds—as common approaches to H2S cleanup.
- Siloxanes: These can occur in gas associated with wastewater, landfill, personal-care, health-care, and industrial sources. Combustion can turn them into silicon-dioxide deposits that damage downstream combustion equipment; reforming studies also identify siloxanes as potential catalyst-affecting contaminants.
- Other source-specific compounds: Biogas may also contain water vapor, nitrogen, oxygen, ammonia, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, halides, or particulates. A cleanup system may need to address some or several of these, depending on the feed and process.
An experimental study examined a 55/45 CH4/CO2 model gas containing H2S, a hydrocarbon mixture, and a siloxane over a nickel-based reforming catalyst. The authors reported that combined poisoning increased coke-formation rates. That result shows that contaminant mixtures affected catalyst behavior under the study’s conditions; it is not a universal performance estimate for every reformer. Experimental study of biogas reforming and catalyst poisoning.
How to assess and prepare biogas for reforming
- Characterize the actual gas. Measure methane, CO2, moisture, H2S, siloxanes, and other contaminants relevant to the source. Landfill gas and digester gas should not be assumed to have the same impurity profile.
- Obtain process-specific outlet limits. Use requirements validated for the selected reformer and catalyst, along with the downstream product specification. The cited sources do not establish one universal acceptable limit for H2S or siloxanes.
- Choose a cleanup train for the measured contaminants. For H2S, DOE describes scrubbers and iron sponge. Broader treatment may target sulfur compounds, siloxanes, moisture, and other impurities. The sequence and treatment media are engineering choices based on gas composition and process requirements.
- Verify treated gas with suitable measurements. Confirm cleanup performance using appropriate methods and detection limits; the equipment label alone does not prove the outlet meets reformer requirements. A DOE workshop report describes one demonstration in which reported sulfur and halogen measurements were below instrument detection limits and siloxanes were below that project’s detection limit. Those historical, project-specific readings are not guarantees for other systems. U.S. Department of Energy, biogas cleanup workshop report.
What determines whether a particular gas is suitable?
Suitability is a match between a measured feed, an engineered cleanup system, and the reformer and downstream equipment—not a universal property of “biogas.” To evaluate a proposed feed or system, compare:
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- Measured CH4, CO2, and contaminant concentrations in the actual gas.
- Cleanup outlet performance and how it was measured, including relevant detection limits.
- The reformer and catalyst’s validated tolerance for the treated gas.
- The required purity and specification of the final hydrogen product.
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