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Why clinker is the key to cement emissions
Portland cement is made by heating raw materials, including limestone, in a kiln to produce clinker, then grinding that intermediate into cement. The process uses energy, and calcining limestone releases carbon dioxide. Clinker is therefore a major source of cement’s production-related global warming potential (GWP).
Blended cement contains clinker together with one or more other constituents. Replacing some clinker with materials that do not require the same clinker-production step can reduce emissions per unit of cement. That does not make the substitute materials impact-free: processing, electricity, transport and the rules used to calculate an environmental product declaration (EPD) also affect the result. The American Cement Association (ACA) describes clinker reduction as a key opportunity for lowering cement’s materials-related GWP in its blended cements guidance.
What counts as blended cement?
In the United States, ASTM C595 categories include several types of blended cement. The constituents and products available vary by supplier and region.
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| U.S. designation | What it means |
|---|---|
| Type IL | Portland-limestone cement (PLC). Under ASTM C595 and AASHTO M 240, it contains 5% to 15% ground limestone as a cement ingredient. |
| Type IS | Portland blast-furnace slag cement. |
| Type IP | Portland-pozzolan cement. |
| Type IT | Ternary blended cement, combining multiple supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). |
SCMs include materials such as slag, coal ash and natural pozzolans. Limestone, calcined clay and other pozzolans are also used in blended cements. A blend may be made as a cement product or formed partly by adding SCMs to the concrete mixture; those are not automatically equivalent products or comparisons. For more on the terminology, see the ACA’s cement and concrete FAQ.
How PLC lowers clinker use
PLC incorporates ground limestone into cement, so less clinker is needed for a given amount of cement. Using less clinker reduces the amount of limestone that must be calcined into clinker and the associated kiln fuel emissions. Grinding the added limestone takes energy, but the Portland Cement Association (PCA) says that, in its described comparison, the energy saved by reducing clinker outweighs the extra grinding energy.
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How much lower can the carbon footprint be?
There is no single reduction that applies to every cement, concrete mix or project. Two U.S. figures illustrate why the comparison boundary matters:
| Figure | What it describes |
|---|---|
| Up to 10% lower | ACA’s stated upper estimate for the carbon-footprint reduction when PLC replaces portland cement in concrete mixtures. It is not a guaranteed project result. ACA guidance |
| 8.2% lower on average | PCA’s 2024 report compared U.S. industry-wide 2021 EPDs for PLC averaging 10.8% limestone with portland cement averaging 2.7% limestone. This is a cement-product average under that EPD basis, not a concrete-mix or project-specific reduction. PCA report |
The figures should not be treated as competing promises: one is ACA’s upper estimate for concrete mixtures, while the other is an average comparison of cement products using industry EPDs. A concrete’s total result also depends on how much cement it uses and the impacts of its other ingredients, transport and construction.
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ACA also reports that blended cements accounted for roughly two-thirds of the U.S. cement market as of August 2025, and estimates that U.S. use of PLC and other blended cements reduced emissions by more than 3.9 million metric tons of CO₂ during 2023. ACA compares that 2023 estimate with the carbon stored by 4.5 million acres of U.S. forests for a year. These are ACA’s dated U.S. industry figures, not global market shares or a forecast for an individual project. See its 2026 technical guidance and blended cements page.
How to compare cement and concrete options
An EPD reports environmental information according to a Product Category Rule (PCR), but its scope and declared unit determine what its GWP figure represents. Cement EPDs generally cover manufacturing through the plant gate; they do not by themselves measure the full lifecycle of the concrete structure.
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- Match the reporting basis. Compare EPDs with the same relevant PCR, scope and declared or functional unit. Check the product type and constituents behind each result.
- Compare the concrete, not just the cement label. Account for cement content and the proportions of the full mixture, as well as the fresh and hardened performance required for the project.
- Include project conditions. Consider transport distances, construction methods, exposure conditions, durability and service life, repairs and maintenance, and end-of-life handling.
- Check current supplier information. Product- and region-specific EPDs may be more relevant than industry averages. Review supplier data, consistency and availability for the actual project location.
ACA’s environmental impact guidance explains EPD and lifecycle assessment considerations. It says the North American cement PCR version 4.0 was published July 2, 2025, and that EPDs may remain valid for up to five years. Its current industry-average cement EPDs were based on the 2020 PCR and originally published in 2021, with subsequent revision and extension. On October 6, 2026, ACA announced consolidated SMART EPD Part B Product Category Rules for Cementitious Materials, Standard 1000-017 version 1, covering cement, slag cement and SCMs including coal ash and natural pozzolans. ACA said data collection for new industry-average EPDs had begun; the updated averages were still in progress at the time of that announcement. Check for newer product- and region-specific declarations when making a procurement or reporting decision. ACA’s announcement.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.What to check before using a new blend
A cement type alone does not guarantee identical concrete behavior in every mix. ACA says PLC is designed for similar performance to Type I portland cement, but recommends evaluating mixture changes in their project context and reviewing supplier certification and consistency information. As ACA technical director Michelle L. Wilson put it, “Treat every new blend as a new material, even if the label is familiar.” ACA technical guidance, September 22, 2026.
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- Confirm that the proposed cement or SCM meets the project’s applicable specification and is available from the intended supplier.
- Test the specific mixture for relevant fresh-concrete properties and hardened performance, including strength at the ages required by the design.
- Account for strength development over time. Concrete containing some SCMs can gain strength more slowly by 28 days; where the applicable design and specification allow it, later-age strength criteria may be appropriate.
- Consider exposure, durability and supplier variability alongside the target GWP, rather than choosing on a single cement-level figure.
What the carbon number does—and does not—tell you
A lower cement EPD GWP indicates lower reported impacts within that declaration’s scope and calculation rules. It is useful for comparing products on a like-for-like basis, but it is not a full lifecycle assessment of a building or infrastructure project. Project-level analysis also needs the concrete proportions, transport, construction, service life, maintenance and end-of-life treatment. Those factors can change how much a cement-level reduction matters in the finished structure.
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