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Several viruses, a bacterium, and certain parasites can cause or increase the risk of particular cancers. Vaccination can prevent some of these infections—most notably high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV)—but it does not prevent every infection-linked cancer, treat an infection already present, or replace recommended screening.
How an infection can raise cancer risk
An infection is a risk factor, not a prediction: most people with a cancer-associated infection will not necessarily develop cancer. Some infections can persist and contribute to changes in cells over time; others increase risk indirectly, for example by weakening immune control of other infections. The National Cancer Institute estimates that infectious agents account for about 13% of cancers worldwide. That is an approximate population-level estimate, not an individual’s probability of developing cancer.
Which infections are linked to cancer?
The associations below are described by the National Cancer Institute. They do not mean that infection inevitably leads to cancer, and the strength and circumstances of the associations differ.
| Infection or agent | Cancer associations | Relevant context |
|---|---|---|
| High-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) | Cervical, anal, oropharyngeal, penile, vaginal, and vulvar cancers | Persistent high-risk HPV can cause precancerous changes. Vaccines target HPV types responsible for most HPV-associated cancers. |
| Hepatitis B virus (HBV) | Liver cancer | Chronic infection can lead to liver cancer; vaccination can prevent HBV infection. |
| Hepatitis C virus (HCV) | Liver cancer | Chronic infection is associated with risk. The cited sources emphasize testing and treatment; they do not identify an HCV vaccine. |
| Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) | Certain lymphomas and cancers of the nose and throat | EBV infection is common and lifelong; the NCI says no preventive vaccine is available. More than 90% of people worldwide are estimated to be infected during their lifetime, and most do not develop symptoms. |
| Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) | Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma | Infection occurs more commonly in some regions, including Japan, Africa, the Caribbean, and South America. The NCI says no vaccine is available. |
| Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV/HHV-8) | Kaposi sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma, and multicentric Castleman disease | These diseases are more likely in people with HIV or other immunosuppression. |
| Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) | Non-cardia gastric adenocarcinoma and gastric MALT lymphoma | Chronic infection can cause long-term stomach inflammation. Antibiotic eradication has reduced gastric cancer risk in studied groups. |
| Opisthorchis viverrini | Bile duct cancer (cholangiocarcinoma) | Infection is associated with eating raw or undercooked freshwater fish containing the parasite’s larvae. |
| Schistosoma haematobium | Bladder cancer | Infection follows contact with contaminated fresh water in areas where the parasite occurs. |
| Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) | Increased risk of cancers associated with other infections | HIV can contribute indirectly: immune suppression weakens the body’s control of cancer-associated infections. |
How vaccination can reduce cancer risk
HPV vaccination
HPV vaccination prevents new infections with targeted HPV types, thereby preventing some HPV-associated precancers and cancers. It does not clear HPV already present or treat HPV-related disease.
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Under U.S. CDC guidance, routine vaccination is recommended at ages 11–12 and may start at age 9. Catch-up vaccination is recommended through age 26 for people who were not adequately vaccinated earlier. Most people who start before their 15th birthday need two doses, generally 6–12 months apart; people who start at ages 15–26 and immunocompromised people need three doses. For adults ages 27–45 who were not adequately vaccinated, a clinician and patient may decide together whether vaccination is useful.
Hepatitis B vaccination
HBV vaccination prevents HBV infection and can therefore prevent the chronic infection that can lead to liver cancer. The CDC recommends hepatitis B vaccination for adults ages 19–59; the vaccine is available for all age groups, and older adults may also be vaccinated depending on guidance and risk. The NCI notes routine infant vaccination in the United States and many other countries. Vaccine schedules and eligibility can vary by country, so follow local guidance and discuss individual circumstances with a clinician.
What vaccination does not cover
HPV and HBV vaccines do not protect against every infection associated with cancer. The NCI says no preventive vaccine is available for EBV or HTLV-1; the cited sources do not identify vaccines for HCV or H. pylori. Other prevention depends on the infection: HCV testing and treatment, H. pylori detection and treatment, and HIV care may be relevant. For parasite-linked infections, reducing exposure to the parasite is important; the relevant exposure depends on where a person lives or travels.
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Why cervical screening is still needed
HPV vaccination does not replace routine cervical cancer screening. Vaccination lowers risk from targeted HPV types; screening can detect cervical cell changes that might become cancer. The appropriate screening schedule depends on jurisdiction, age, and personal history, so use local recommendations.
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