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The Internet of Things (IoT) is a broad term for physical devices and other “things” that use sensors, software, and network connections to collect or exchange data, and in many cases to act on the physical world. A temperature sensor measures a room, a connected thermostat or hub passes that reading to an app or service, and a person or a software rule decides what happens next, such as adjusting the heating or sending an alert. Wearables, appliances, lighting, cars, and home security devices are common examples. The same connectivity that makes these systems useful also raises security and privacy questions, which are covered near the end of this guide.
What the term covers
IoT does not have one definition that every agency or standards body uses. NIST’s Cybersecurity for IoT Program says so directly: “There is no one widely accepted definition of the Internet of Things.” (NIST Cybersecurity for IoT FAQ). Different sources draw the boundary in different places, as the table shows.
| Source | What it describes | Emphasis |
|---|---|---|
| NIST CSRC glossary | A network of devices with hardware, software, firmware, and actuators that connect, interact, and exchange data. The glossary gives context-specific definitions. | Devices as networked systems |
| NIST Cybersecurity for IoT FAQ | A growing number of devices connected to each other and/or to the Internet. | A plain working description |
| NIST cybersecurity program device scope | A device with at least one transducer (a sensor or actuator) and at least one network interface. It may work on its own or rely on other devices or cloud systems for some functions. | A test for deciding what is in scope for security work |
| ITU-T Y.4000, as quoted in ITU-T Y.4814 (September 2025) | A global infrastructure that interconnects physical and virtual things using interoperable information and communication technologies. | Infrastructure, including virtual things |
The ITU definition reads: “A global infrastructure for the information society, enabling advanced services by interconnecting (physical and virtual) things based on existing and evolving interoperable information and communication technologies.” In that framework, a “thing” is an object in the physical or information world that can be identified and integrated into communication networks.
For everyday use, IoT means connected devices that gather data about the world, share it, and sometimes influence what happens next. The standards definitions are wider because they also count virtual things, and the NIST device test is narrower because it is designed for security work.
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How an IoT system works
The following four-stage loop is a teaching model, not a universal architecture. Real products vary in where each stage happens.
1. Sense or identify
A sensor measures something such as temperature, motion, location, or energy use. A device may also identify itself or the object it is attached to. Sensing is the stage that connects a digital system to the physical world.
2. Process and communicate
The device may do some processing on its own, then sends data through a network interface. Depending on the product, that connection can be direct, run through a hub or gateway, or pass through another connected system.
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3. Interpret
An app, a local controller, or a cloud service stores, displays, or analyzes the information. Some systems decide locally whether to act; others depend on a remote service to make that call.
4. Respond
A person may see an alert or a dashboard and act on it, or software may trigger an actuator, such as switching a light on or changing a thermostat setting. A response closes the loop, and it is the step that gives IoT its physical effect.
A worked example: a connected thermostat
This is an illustration of a familiar pattern, not a description of any specific product:
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- A sensor in the thermostat reads 19 °C in a room where the target is 21 °C.
- The thermostat sends that reading to the homeowner’s app or to a service that the app uses.
- A rule in the app or service tells the heating system to run.
- The homeowner can see the temperature history and change the target from a phone.
In this chain, the sensing and actuation happen on the device, while the rule and the history may live on a phone, a hub, or a remote service, depending on the product.
Examples readers can recognize
CISA’s Internet of Things tip sheet (published in 2019) lists cars, appliances, smart watches, lighting, home assistants, and home security among connected “things.” It gives concrete cases, summarized below.
| Category | What CISA describes | What is sensed or controlled |
|---|---|---|
| Cars | Devices that direct a driver to an open parking spot | Parking availability information |
| Household energy | Mechanisms that manage household energy | Energy use in the home |
| Wearables and smart watches | Tools that track eating, sleeping, and exercise | Personal activity and health-related habits |
| Appliances, lighting, home assistants, home security | Listed as connected things; the source gives no further detail | Not stated in the source |
These examples show that IoT covers consumer and everyday products, not only factory sensors and industrial equipment.
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Is a particular product an IoT device?
Use the NIST device-scope test as a checklist:
- Does it have at least one sensor or actuator that interacts with the physical world?
- Does it have at least one network interface for the digital world?
- Does it run alone, or does it depend on a hub, app, or cloud service for some functions?
A smart home product that passes the first two checks fits NIST’s device description. The third question matters for security and maintenance, because it tells you which other systems you are trusting, but it does not by itself decide whether the product is an IoT device.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.Why architectures differ
Several design choices vary from product to product, and none of them is mandatory:
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- Hubs and gateways: some devices connect directly to a network, while others rely on a hub to bridge their connection.
- Wireless protocols: the radio technology and communication standard differ across products, so do not assume a particular one.
When you evaluate a product, check the specific device’s documentation rather than assuming a standard setup.
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Security and privacy
Why IoT risk differs from conventional IT
NIST says IoT devices can interact with the physical world, connect extensively to other systems, have limited processing capacity, and depend on cloud services. Together, those traits introduce cybersecurity and privacy risks beyond those commonly associated with conventional IT systems (NIST IR 8228, 2019). Because a compromised device can affect both data and physical equipment, the consequences of a breach can extend beyond a leaked file.
Basic steps to take with a connected device
- Replace the factory password. CISA’s tip sheet advises: “Change your device’s factory security settings from the default password.” (CISA Internet of Things tip sheet)
- Check what the device collects. Identify the types of data it records and who can access that data through the app or service.
- Review connected accounts. Remove apps, linked accounts, and services you no longer use.
- Check support before buying. Confirm whether the manufacturer publishes updates and how long it plans to support the product.
These steps reduce exposure but do not guarantee security. A single setting does not make a device secure, and convenience features do not establish that a product is private or supported indefinitely.
Optional: build a simple IoT project
If you want hands-on practice, Arduino’s Starter Kit is a beginner kit with an UNO R4 WiFi board, components, a project book, and guided learning that introduces IoT projects. It is a learning aid rather than a requirement for understanding the subject. Arduino also publishes IoT courses and projects for its cloud platform, described in its Arduino Cloud courses and projects help article. Check the manufacturer’s page for current contents and availability before buying.
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