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Sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) is a non-fossil aviation fuel made from renewable or waste-derived materials, or from renewable electricity and captured carbon, that meets technical and sustainability criteria. It can be blended with conventional jet fuel and used in existing aviation systems, but its climate benefit depends on how it is made and measured. SAF is not yet available in enough volume to replace most conventional jet fuel.
What does SAF mean?
SAF stands for sustainable aviation fuel. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines SAF as renewable or waste-derived aviation fuels that meet sustainability criteria. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) describes it as a non-fossil fuel for use in aircraft.
It is a category, not one single recipe. Different feedstocks and production processes can qualify, and they do not all have identical climate impacts, fuel specifications, or permitted blend levels. Calling a fuel “sustainable” does not by itself establish how much it reduces emissions; the pathway and the accounting method matter.
What is SAF made from?
SAF can be produced from waste oils and fats, agricultural and forestry residues, municipal solid waste, waste wood, or renewable electricity combined with green hydrogen and captured carbon dioxide. The material used and the conversion process together make up a fuel pathway.
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Common and emerging production pathways
| Pathway | Typical input or approach | What to know |
|---|---|---|
| HEFA (hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids) | Waste oils, used cooking oil, and animal fats | Most current SAF is produced this way. Its wider use is constrained by the supply of suitable waste oils and fats. |
| Alcohol-to-jet | Alcohol converted into jet fuel | An alternative SAF pathway; the particular feedstock and route determine its fuel properties and applicable blend limit. |
| Gasification/Fischer–Tropsch | Gasified feedstock converted into liquid fuel | An alternative pathway that can use eligible waste or residue materials; the details depend on the feedstock and process. |
| Power-to-liquid (PtL), also called e-SAF | Renewable electricity, hydrogen, and captured carbon dioxide | Can use non-biological inputs, but scaling it requires large quantities of low-carbon electricity and hydrogen, as well as captured carbon. |
The European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) reported that eight SAF production processes had been standardized by ASTM as of October 2024. Standardization and blending specifications are pathway-specific, so the existence of one approved route does not mean every SAF can be blended at the same level.
Can planes run on SAF?
Yes. SAF is a drop-in fuel: when blended to the applicable specification, it can be handled through existing fuel distribution and storage systems and used by aircraft and engines certified for jet fuel. IATA’s May 2024 SAF Handbook says blended SAF is “fully fungible” with conventional aviation fuel; the U.S. Department of Energy likewise describes SAF as compatible with existing aviation engines, distribution infrastructure, and storage facilities.
That does not mean every aircraft can use any SAF at any concentration. SAF is generally blended with conventional aviation fuel, and the maximum blend fraction depends on the certified production pathway and fuel specification. The evidence here does not establish a single universal blend limit or that all aircraft are cleared to use unblended SAF. Airlines and fuel suppliers must use fuel that meets the applicable specifications.
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SAF and conventional jet fuel release comparable amounts of carbon dioxide when combusted for the same energy. The claimed climate advantage is mainly a lifecycle reduction: it compares emissions across the fuel’s production and use, rather than assuming that burning SAF releases little or no CO2 from the aircraft.
ICAO lifecycle accounting covers cultivation or collection of feedstock, processing, transport, conversion, distribution, and aircraft combustion. The result can change with the feedstock, production energy, land-use change, biodiversity and water effects, indirect effects, and the quality of traceability. A headline emissions-reduction percentage is therefore not universal: it needs a pathway, comparison baseline, and accounting boundary.
What the published figures mean
| Figure | What it refers to | Qualification |
|---|---|---|
| Around 80% lifecycle emissions reduction | IATA’s current SAF overview gives this as a typical reduction for HEFA SAF compared with conventional aviation fuel. | It is a typical pathway comparison, not a guaranteed result for every HEFA fuel or a reduction in the CO2 emitted at the aircraft during combustion. |
| Up to 65% | IATA’s current SAF overview says SAF could provide up to 65% of the emissions reductions needed for aviation to reach net-zero CO2 by 2050. | This describes a potential contribution to the sector’s overall reduction need, not a reduction from an individual flight or a guarantee that the required SAF will be produced. |
| 5% by 2030 | ICAO’s 2023 framework sets a collective global aspirational vision for reducing international aviation CO2 through SAF, lower-carbon aviation fuels, and other cleaner energies. | This is an aspirational global vision, not an individual airline requirement or a measured outcome. |
These figures answer different questions: one compares a fuel pathway with conventional fuel, another estimates SAF’s potential role in aviation’s net-zero transition, and the third is a global aspiration for several types of cleaner energy. They should not be presented as interchangeable measures.
Why is SAF scarce and expensive?
SAF supply depends on several things scaling together: sustainable feedstocks or renewable electricity, hydrogen and captured carbon for some routes, refining capacity, certification, and delivery logistics at airports. A shortage in any of these can constrain how much fuel reaches aircraft.
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Limits vary by pathway
- HEFA: It is the most established current route, but waste oils and fats are limited resources. Increasing demand cannot be met indefinitely by relying on the same pool of suitable waste feedstocks.
- Power-to-liquid: It may have broader theoretical feedstock availability, but making it at scale requires substantial low-carbon electricity and hydrogen, plus captured carbon and production facilities.
- Other routes: Agricultural and forestry residues, municipal waste, and other inputs may broaden the options, but their suitability and sustainability depend on how they are sourced and processed.
These constraints help explain why SAF remains a small share of aviation fuel even as production pathways and policy support develop. They also mean that a stated production capacity or announced supply is not necessarily the same as fuel actually delivered and used at a particular airport.
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What policies are pushing SAF deployment?
ICAO organizes its work around policy and planning, regulatory frameworks, implementation support, and financing. The European Union has a binding regional policy through ReFuelEU Aviation, which entered into force in 2025 and progressively increases fuel-supplier obligations at EU airports.
The European Commission’s ReFuelEU Aviation policy page sets a SAF share beginning at 2% in 2025 and rising to 70% in 2050. The same policy identifies categories for synthetic low-carbon aviation fuels and renewable hydrogen; qualifying synthetic fuels must meet a 70% lifecycle-emissions-savings threshold. These are EU policy requirements and categories, not a global mandate or a guarantee that the fuel will be available at every airport worldwide.
IATA estimates global SAF production at about 2.4 million tonnes in 2026, equivalent to 0.8% of annual jet-fuel consumption. This is an organization’s estimate for 2026, not a measured share at every location or a guaranteed supply level. Production totals also do not show how much SAF is available to a particular airline or airport.
How to assess an SAF claim
When an airline, fuel producer, or buyer says SAF cuts emissions by a particular percentage, look for enough detail to understand what the number covers. A percentage without its pathway, baseline, and accounting method is incomplete.
Quick Recap
- Identify the feedstock and land-use risk. Ask whether the fuel comes from waste, residues, or another source, and whether land-use change or competing uses are considered.
- Check the lifecycle methodology. Find out which production and use stages are counted and whether indirect effects are included.
- Confirm the pathway and fuel specification. The certified route affects the fuel’s properties and permitted blend fraction.
- Look for traceability and independent verification. These help establish that the claimed feedstock and emissions accounting match the fuel or accounting claim.
- Ask what volume was actually delivered and where. A production estimate, target, or announced supply is not proof that a given amount was used on a specific flight or at a specific airport.
- Separate climate performance from price and policy support. Cost, subsidies, mandates, and lifecycle emissions are related to deployment, but they are not the same measure of environmental benefit.
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