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Restrict an AI model at the execution boundary, not in the prompt. Run model-directed code in a container, virtual machine, or managed sandbox; expose only a task-specific workspace; deny network egress unless it is required; keep credentials in a trusted broker; and layer operating-system controls, approvals, and audit logs. Prompts can describe intended behavior, but the runtime, kernel, filesystem policy, and network controls determine what generated code can actually reach.
The security boundary: trusted harness versus sandbox compute
A tool-using model should not share a security domain with the system that controls it. Put model calls, orchestration, tool routing, authentication, approval decisions, audit storage, and recovery state in a trusted harness or control plane. Put generated programs and shell commands in disposable or separately isolated compute that contains only the resources needed for the current task.
OpenAI’s sandbox guide describes this separation and warns that placing the harness and model-directed execution in one compute boundary is convenient for prototypes but combines their security domains. If generated code escapes its intended behavior, the harness must remain able to stop the task, revoke access, preserve evidence, and recover state.
“Agent-generated code can access the files, credentials, and network available to its environment.” — OpenAI Sandbox security
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This principle applies whether the model is writing a short script, operating a coding workspace, transforming uploaded data, or calling external tools. Application-level permissions can decide which tools are offered, but only the environment can prevent an unexpected program from opening an unlisted file, invoking an unapproved syscall, or sending data to an unapproved destination.
Define the minimum capability before creating the environment
Start with an inventory for each task or tool. Record what data must be read, what may be changed, which executables are necessary, whether packages must be downloaded, which ports or services are required, and how long state must persist. The fresh-session manifest described in the OpenAI SDK sandbox documentation is a useful model: treat files, directories, repositories, mounts, environment variables, users, and groups as an explicit workspace contract.
| Capability | Minimum grant to consider | Deny by default |
|---|---|---|
| Files | One task workspace or named data set, with separate read-only inputs and writable outputs where possible | Host home directories, unrelated projects, SSH material, cloud configuration, browser profiles, host sockets, and broad root mounts |
| Shell and processes | Specific interpreters and utilities under an unprivileged identity | Privileged containers, host PID visibility, device access, unnecessary capabilities, and paths that permit privilege escalation |
| Packages | Prebuilt dependencies or a narrowly controlled package source | Unrestricted package installation and arbitrary download scripts |
| Network | No egress, or an allowlist enforced by a firewall or trusted proxy | General internet access, host networking, unreviewed localhost services, and Unix sockets that reach trusted systems |
| Credentials | A short-lived, operation-specific token supplied by a trusted broker | Long-lived API keys, cloud credentials, signing keys, and secrets embedded in images, source, logs, or the model-visible environment |
| Persistence | Only the artifacts and resumable state the workflow needs | Shared writable state between unrelated users or workloads |
Use a separate environment for users or workloads that must not share data. Keep billing records, policy configuration, long-lived credentials, and recovery controls in the trusted control plane rather than in the same environment as generated code.
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A reference build sequence
- Classify the task. Decide whether it needs only a text response or an inspectable workspace, commands, artifacts, mounted data, exposed services, or resumable filesystem state. The OpenAI SDK guidance says a sandbox is appropriate for those stateful or tool-using tasks; a brief response with no persistent workspace may not need one.
- Create a task-scoped manifest. List exact input paths, output paths, read/write modes, executable requirements, package sources, exposed ports, outbound destinations, user and group identity, and the credential operations that are allowed. Reject undeclared mounts and capabilities instead of silently broadening the environment.
- Launch isolated compute. Choose a container, VM, or managed sandbox according to the threat model. Use a fresh or separately assigned environment when data from another user or workload must not be reachable.
- Apply filesystem policy before starting the model-directed process. Mount only the listed workspace and data. Make inputs read-only when edits are unnecessary, and place generated artifacts in a separate writable location when practical.
- Apply process and syscall policy. Run as an unprivileged user, remove unnecessary Linux capabilities and devices, isolate namespaces, and retain a tested syscall filter. Do not rely on a single control to provide complete isolation.
- Apply network policy. Start with no outbound access. If connectivity is required, route it through an enforced firewall or trusted proxy that permits only the documented destinations and services. Keep a narrow harness or executor control connection separate from the task process’s internet access.
- Broker credentials. Store real secrets in a trusted service. Give the sandbox a placeholder or narrow executor credential and have the broker attach a scoped secret only to an approved call.
- Add approval gates and telemetry. Require review for operations that would cross a policy boundary, and record tool calls, policy decisions, network permits and denials, execution context, and results.
- Exercise the boundary. Run tests for path traversal, symlinks, undeclared mounts, privilege changes, forbidden syscalls, local sockets, denied destinations, credential exposure, and log completeness before allowing production data.
- Expire and recover. Destroy or reset the sandbox after the task when possible, revoke suspected credentials, preserve relevant logs, and keep recovery controls outside the sandbox.
Restrict filesystem access precisely
Use narrow mounts and explicit read/write modes
A repository mount is not a license to expose the host. Mount the exact repository or data set required for the task, not a parent directory that happens to contain it. Exclude home directories, credential stores, browser profiles, unrelated repositories, container or orchestration sockets, and host configuration. If the agent needs to create files, provide a dedicated output directory instead of making every input writable.
Separate trusted orchestration state from task data. The model-directed process should not be able to edit approval rules, audit records, billing information, recovery state, or the harness’s authentication material. A task may receive a copy or an exported view of data while the authoritative copy remains in the control plane.
Use kernel-enforced filesystem rules where available
On Linux, Landlock adds scoped restrictions to filesystem access without requiring a privileged process. Its rules are additive to other access controls, and its filesystem, network, and IPC features depend on the kernel’s supported ABI. Read the actual kernel’s reported ABI and enable only features the runtime can enforce; do not assume that a policy written for a newer kernel is active on an older one. The Linux kernel Landlock documentation is the authoritative reference for supported scopes and version checks.
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Landlock can also constrain TCP port binding and connection, with newer UDP and IPC scopes available only where the kernel ABI supports them. These are port-level controls, not a general hostname or domain allowlist. If policy depends on destination identity, enforce it at the network layer or through a proxy that can make that decision.
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Test whether a process can follow symlinks into an unintended tree, open a Unix socket, reach a service bound to localhost, or use an exposed port to cross into a trusted component. A filesystem allowlist that ignores sockets and local services can still leave a path to sensitive data. Inventory mounts, exposed ports, host networking, and Unix sockets as part of the same policy review.
Constrain shell commands, processes, and syscalls
Run as an unprivileged identity
Use a dedicated user with no unnecessary group memberships. Avoid privileged containers, broad Linux capabilities, host PID or device access, and writable host mounts. NIST’s NISTIR 8176 cautions against capabilities with broad host effects, including CAP_SYS_ADMIN, and recommends using capabilities with user namespaces. NISTIR 8176 was published in 2017, so treat it as foundational assurance guidance and verify exact settings against the current runtime documentation.
Layer namespaces, capabilities, and syscall filtering
Namespaces separate views of processes, mounts, users, and networking; capabilities divide privileged operations; and a syscall filter limits which kernel entry points a process can invoke. These controls address different escape paths and should be configured together. A process that cannot see the host filesystem may still abuse a dangerous capability, and a syscall filter does not decide which ordinary files are mounted.
Docker documents its default seccomp profile as an allowlist that disables around 44 system calls out of more than 300 while retaining broad compatibility. Docker describes the profile as moderately protective and does not recommend replacing it casually. Keep the documented default unless a tested requirement calls for a custom profile, and treat the profile as one layer alongside namespaces, capabilities, credentials, filesystem policy, and network controls. See Docker’s seccomp documentation for the current profile and version-sensitive details.
Do not equate command approval with command containment
An approval dialog that asks whether to run npm install, a shell script, or a compiler governs that particular tool call. It does not prevent the resulting process from reading every mounted file or opening an allowed network connection. Approval is a decision process; the sandbox is the technical boundary. Use both when an operation is consequential.
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Control outbound and local network access
Begin with default deny
If the task does not need the network, disable outbound access entirely. This removes a straightforward route for transmitting accessible data and prevents unreviewed downloads. If the task needs a package registry, source repository, or API, enumerate those destinations and permit only the required services through an enforced firewall or trusted proxy. OpenAI’s sandbox security guidance recommends allowing outbound traffic only to approved endpoints.
Separate executor connectivity from task connectivity
A harness or executor may need a narrow control-plane channel to start a task, stream output, or stop a process. That channel should not imply that the task itself has broad internet access. Route control traffic separately, authenticate it independently, and avoid exposing the control service on an address the task can freely modify or impersonate.
Protect local boundaries
Review exposed ports, host networking, localhost services, and Unix sockets. A process with no external internet route may still reach a local service that holds credentials or administrative authority. The sandbox guide identifies exposed ports and controlled external access as explicit environment features; include each one in the manifest and test both permitted and denied paths.
Use the right enforcement point
Landlock’s network scopes can restrict TCP port binding and connection when supported by the kernel ABI, but a port rule cannot express “allow this hostname and deny that hostname” on its own. Use a proxy or network firewall when destination identity, HTTP method, service account, or request inspection matters. Record the kernel and runtime versions that enforce the policy so an upgrade does not silently change its meaning.
Keep credentials outside the model-directed environment
Never place a long-lived application key or third-party secret in source code, an image layer, a broadly readable environment variable, or a log. Agent-generated code can inspect credentials made available to its environment, even when the model was instructed not to do so.
A safer brokered request flow
- The sandbox asks the trusted harness for a named operation, such as “upload artifact to project X.”
- The harness authenticates the caller, checks the task manifest and approval state, and verifies the destination.
- A trusted vault or proxy obtains the real credential and attaches only the scope required for that request.
- The external service response is filtered before the result returns to the sandbox.
- The broker records the operation without exposing the underlying secret to generated code.
Give the sandbox a placeholder or narrow executor token rather than the production credential. Use short lifetimes and limited audiences where the platform supports them. If exposure is suspected, revoke or rotate the credential, invalidate the affected task, and review logs from the control plane.
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Make approvals, monitoring, and recovery separate controls
Sandboxing answers where code can write and whether it can reach a network. Approval policy answers when a requested operation requires human or service review. Telemetry answers what was attempted, allowed, denied, and returned. None substitutes for the others.
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Log the model and tool invocation, policy version, workspace identity, user and group, approval decision, process result, network allow or deny event, and relevant timestamps. OpenAI describes OpenTelemetry events for prompts, approval decisions, tool results, MCP usage, and network proxy decisions in Running Codex safely at OpenAI. Landlock can also report denied accesses depending on configuration; use those events to find missing task requirements without broadly opening the environment.
Keep logs and recovery state outside the sandbox so a compromised process cannot erase evidence or alter the policy it is being evaluated against. Alert on repeated denied paths, attempts to access credential locations, unexpected destination requests, privilege-related failures, and changes to the declared workspace.
Compare implementation patterns
| Pattern | Enforcement boundary | What it is good at | Requirements and trade-offs |
|---|---|---|---|
| Application tool permissions | The harness decides which named tools and arguments the model may request | Simple workflows, explicit approvals, and clear business actions | Does not contain arbitrary code that runs inside an approved tool; pair it with OS enforcement for shell or filesystem access |
| Container plus OS controls | Container namespaces, mounts, capabilities, seccomp, filesystem policy, and network policy | Fast, repeatable task environments with precise workspace contracts | Requires careful host configuration and kernel/runtime version checks; a container is not automatically a complete security boundary |
| Virtual machine | A separate guest kernel and virtualized hardware boundary | Higher-risk or less-trusted workloads that need stronger separation than a shared-kernel container | More startup, image, patching, and observability overhead; exact guarantees depend on the virtualization stack |
| Managed sandbox service | Provider-managed isolated compute, workspace, network, and lifecycle controls | Teams that need resumable workspaces, artifact handling, and operational controls without building every isolation layer | Review provider-specific persistence, data handling, network policy, credential integration, and version behavior before deployment |
Choose the smallest environment that meets the threat model, not the smallest environment that merely makes a demo work. A brief, stateless response can remain in the application layer; commands, mounted data, generated artifacts, exposed services, or resumable state justify isolated compute.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.An illustrative task policy
The following is a policy shape, not a universal runtime file format. Map each field to the controls supported by the selected container, VM, or managed sandbox, and fail closed when a field cannot be enforced.
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workspace:
inputs:
- path: /work/project
mode: read-only
outputs:
- path: /work/artifacts
mode: read-write
process:
user: unprivileged
executables: [compiler, test-runner]
privileges: none
network:
egress: deny
approved_destinations: []
credentials:
direct_secrets: none
broker_operations: []
logging:
tool_calls: enabled
policy_decisions: enabled
network_decisions: enabled
lifecycle:
isolate_from_other_tasks: true
destroy_after_completion: trueIf tests later require a package registry, add the exact destination and brokered operation after documenting the need. Do not respond to a failed build by mounting the host or granting unrestricted internet access.
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Test the boundary before trusting production data
- Filesystem tests: attempt to open a parent directory, a sibling project, a home-directory file, a credential path, a device, a host socket, and an undeclared mount. Verify that allowed inputs are readable, protected inputs are denied, and outputs are writable only where intended.
- Path-resolution tests: try relative traversal, absolute paths, symlinks, hard links where applicable, and archive extraction that contains links. Confirm that the policy follows the resolved object rather than only the spelling of the path.
- Process tests: inspect the process tree, namespace view, user and group identity, available capabilities, devices, and host PID visibility. Attempt a privilege-changing operation and confirm a denial with a useful audit event.
- Syscall tests: run a representative workload under the retained seccomp profile and verify that forbidden operations fail without breaking required tools. Treat a custom profile as a code change that needs regression tests.
- Network tests: verify that no-egress tasks cannot connect, that approved destinations work, and that unapproved destinations, localhost services, exposed ports, and Unix sockets are blocked. Test both direct connections and requests made by package managers or helper processes.
- Secret tests: search the environment, process arguments, mounted files, temporary directories, crash output, and logs for credentials. Confirm that the sandbox receives only placeholders or narrow broker tokens.
- Recovery tests: stop a running task, revoke its token, destroy its workspace, and restart the harness. Verify that the sandbox cannot alter approval records or erase the audit trail.
- Upgrade tests: check Landlock ABI support, container runtime behavior, seccomp defaults, proxy rules, and image contents after kernel or runtime upgrades. Record the versions used for each enforcement decision.
Common design failures and repairs
“The system prompt says not to read secrets”
Instructions express intent but do not remove file permissions. Remove the secret paths from the mount set and enforce the result with filesystem policy.
“The container has no internet, so it is safe”
A process can still exfiltrate through an exposed local service, a Unix socket, a mounted host path, or a credential already present in the environment. Test local reachability and keep sensitive control-plane services outside the task boundary.
“The agent needs the repository, so mount the whole home directory”
That trades convenience for unrelated source code, credentials, browser data, and configuration exposure. Create a task workspace containing only the required repository or data set.
“A custom seccomp profile is automatically safer”
Removing calls without testing can break required tools, while retaining a dangerous call may leave an escape path. Start with the documented default, change it only for a demonstrated requirement, and regression-test the resulting workload.
“Landlock works the same everywhere”
Landlock features depend on kernel ABI support. Detect the actual ABI, configure only supported rules, and use network-layer controls when you need hostname or service identity rather than port restrictions.
“Approval replaces sandboxing”
Approval reviews an operation; it does not constrain every action performed by the resulting process. Keep the environment narrow even when every shell command requires confirmation.
“The harness and worker can share one filesystem”
Shared writable state lets model-directed code tamper with policy, logs, credentials, or recovery data. Keep authoritative control-plane state separate and expose only deliberate task inputs and outputs.
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The controls above are representative Linux and container techniques, not a turnkey policy for every workload. Landlock behavior is kernel- and ABI-dependent. Docker’s documented seccomp default is version-sensitive, and its current documentation should be checked before changing profiles. NISTIR 8176 is a 2017 assurance publication, not an inventory of current container defaults.
There is no provider-neutral guarantee here for macOS or Windows enforcement. For those platforms, consult the current primary documentation for the selected agent runtime, sandbox mechanism, kernel or hypervisor, filesystem permissions, and network stack before publishing a platform-specific deployment procedure. Preserve the same architecture: trusted orchestration outside the execution boundary, minimal task data inside it, explicit egress policy, brokered credentials, and independent approval and audit controls.
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