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Political decisions, economic pressures, and social practices can shape zoonotic disease risk by changing where people and animals meet, how pathogens move, and whether prevention is available. They work through ecological and exposure pathways—not as single, universal causes. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that more than 60% of emerging infectious diseases reported globally come from animals; that global share is not a prediction about any particular disease, place, or community.
How do politics, culture, and the economy affect zoonotic disease risk?
A zoonotic disease is one that can pass between animals and people. Risk depends on more than whether a pathogen exists: it also depends on opportunities for exposure and on the ability to prevent, detect, and respond to infection. Political, economic, and social conditions influence those opportunities through land use, animal production and trade, work, food systems, and access to health services.
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A useful way to trace the process is:
- Conditions: A policy, market pressure, livelihood need, or social practice shapes what people do and where.
- Activity or exposure: The resulting activity changes contact among people, domestic animals, wildlife, food, or vectors.
- Ecological or pathogen pathway: Habitat change, animal movement, or exposure at work or in food handling may create a route for infection. Whether transmission follows depends on the pathogen and the setting.
- Prevention and consequences: Surveillance, safer practices, veterinary and public-health services, and coordination affect whether a hazard is reduced, detected, or contained—and who bears the costs.
This sequence is a way to investigate risk, not proof that any specific development project, trade, or practice caused an outbreak. WHO identifies land use, agriculture, livestock farming, animal trade, urbanization, extractive industries, climate change, habitat fragmentation, and encroachment into wild areas among pressures that can create opportunities for disease emergence and spread. WHO’s One Health factsheet, dated 8 May 2026, describes these as interacting pressures, not a universal recipe for an outbreak.
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How can political and institutional decisions change risk?
Political choices help determine how land is used, which activities are regulated, and whether human-health, veterinary, agriculture, wildlife, and environmental agencies have the capacity and authority to work together. Rules and public investment can influence oversight of animal production and trade, disease monitoring, access to prevention, and how quickly relevant information is shared.
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For example, an agricultural or infrastructure expansion may alter habitat and bring people or livestock into closer contact with wildlife. The land-use decision can shape exposure opportunities, but it does not by itself establish that transmission occurred. That depends on ecological conditions, the pathogen, and the contact that follows.
Coordination matters at local, national, and cross-border scales. A detection in one sector may be harder to act on if useful data are not shared with other sectors. WHO describes One Health as integrated work across human, animal, plant, and ecosystem health, requiring collaboration, communication, and coordination; its implementation also depends on political leadership, infrastructure, and funding. These needs do not amount to a simple ranking of governments as “strong” or “weak.”
How do economic conditions affect exposure and prevention?
Economic activity shapes the settings where contact occurs. Farming, livestock production, extractive industries, urban development, and animal trade can affect land, animal movement, working conditions, and food systems. Economic pressures also influence whether producers and workers can adopt safer practices, and whether people can access health services or afford to pause risky work.
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- Textbook on Zoonotic Diseases
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WHO’s summary of a One Health High-Level Expert Panel paper identifies poverty and socioeconomic inequalities as overarching spillover drivers. That points to structural conditions and unequal access to prevention—not to any group being inherently dangerous. The same activity can expose people differently depending on their role, resources, working conditions, and ability to obtain protection or care.
The costs of zoonotic disease extend beyond clinical cases. The Tripartite Guide from WHO, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, and the World Organisation for Animal Health identifies potential indirect losses involving small-producer livelihoods, nutrition, trade, and tourism. A response that reduces infection but ignores these effects may leave affected households less able to sustain safer practices or recover. The guide supports multisectoral national capacity-building and monitoring to address both disease and broader consequences.
How do social and cultural practices shape contact?
Social practices matter when they affect contact with animals, food, or environments. WHO discusses unsafe or unsustainable hunting, farming, and animal trade in the context of spillover, and identifies food production and consumer practices as relevant to understanding disease emergence and spread. The relevant question is what a practice involves and under what conditions—not whether a culture or community is “risky.”
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Practices vary within communities and are shaped by livelihoods, markets, regulation, and access to alternatives. A change intended to reduce exposure is more likely to be workable when affected people can participate in its design and when it accounts for nutrition and income. The cited WHO sources do not quantify an independent contribution of “culture” across diseases, so no single cultural factor can be treated as a universal cause.
What role does the environment play?
Environmental changes can alter habitat, the distribution of hosts and vectors, and the frequency or location of contact among species. A WHO Regional Office for Europe technical report describes how land-use change can fragment ecosystems and increase human contact with natural areas and wildlife; it also discusses habitat degradation, biodiversity decline, hunting and trade, climate change, and pollution as One Health considerations.
These mechanisms are context-dependent. Habitat change may favor species adapted to human environments, but biodiversity loss does not necessarily increase every zoonotic disease. The effects depend on the pathogen, hosts, vectors, and local ecology. The European report provides regional technical framing; it does not establish identical effects in every geography.
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How should prevention address interacting drivers?
One Health prevention connects human health, veterinary, agriculture, wildlife, and environmental work rather than treating each as a separate problem. In practice, relevant measures may include shared surveillance and data, national monitoring capacity, coordination between sectors, and community participation in decisions that affect livelihoods and exposure.
The Tripartite Guide sets out a multisectoral approach for countries addressing zoonotic diseases, including capacity-building and monitoring. WHO’s summary of the OHHLEP paper advocates preventing spillover at its source and addressing multiple drivers, rather than relying only on detection and response after a disease has emerged. Which measures are appropriate depends on the place, pathogen, exposure route, and available evidence.
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Prevention estimates should not be read as interchangeable price tags. WHO reports two annual estimates with different framing, alongside a separate estimate of expected COVID-19 losses:
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| Estimate | Scope and qualification |
|---|---|
| US$10–31 billion per year | WHO’s 2023 summary of the OHHLEP paper’s estimated global costs of spillover prevention. WHO, 3 May 2023. |
| Approximately US$10.3–11.5 billion per year | World Bank estimate for prevention guided by One Health principles, as reported in WHO’s 2026 factsheet. The cited page does not establish that its scope or assumptions match the OHHLEP estimate. WHO, 8 May 2026. |
| Nearly US$14 trillion through 2024 | WHO’s 2023 summary of estimated expected economic losses from COVID-19 through that stated timeframe. This is an estimate, not a final audited loss total. WHO, 3 May 2023. |
The figures illustrate why prevention receives economic attention, but they should not be collapsed into a single comparison: the two annual prevention estimates have different stated framings, while the COVID-19 figure covers expected losses over a defined period.
How to assess a particular zoonotic risk
For a specific place or activity, trace the pathway and distribution of effects instead of assuming that a broad driver explains the outcome. These questions help keep the assessment grounded:
- Scale and governance: Is the relevant decision local land use, national regulation or public services, or cross-border trade and coordination?
- Exposure pathway: Is the concern wildlife contact or trade, livestock and food systems, occupational exposure, or vector and habitat change?
- Distribution: Who benefits from production or development, who faces exposure or livelihood losses, and who can access prevention and care?
- Prevention capacity: Are health, veterinary, agriculture, wildlife, and environmental actors coordinating surveillance, data sharing, resources, and community participation?
- Evidence: Is there place- and disease-specific evidence connecting the activity to exposure or transmission, or only a plausible pathway that needs further assessment?
This approach helps distinguish a credible mechanism from an unsupported attribution, while keeping prevention focused on the conditions that can be changed.
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