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Data centers use electricity to run computing equipment and keep it cool; their water footprint can include both on-site cooling and water used to generate electricity. Their land footprint depends on the specific site and associated infrastructure. National trends can explain why these projects matter, but only local plans, utility filings, and water-provider records can show what a particular facility may require.
How much electricity do data centers use?
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) estimates that U.S. data centers used about 4.4% of the country’s total electricity in 2023. Its 2024 report projected a 6.7%–12% share in 2028, a range reflecting different scenarios rather than a guaranteed outcome. Read LBNL’s 2024 U.S. Data Center Energy Usage Report.
A later LBNL update estimates an 11.8% share by 2030, with scenarios ranging from 9.5% to 15.3%. That estimate and range come from a later update and should not be treated as a simple continuation of the 2028 projection: the estimates were produced on different timetables and under assumptions that are not established as identical. LBNL’s Center of Expertise summarizes its energy and water modeling and forecasting.
| Period | U.S. data-center electricity estimate | What the figure represents |
|---|---|---|
| 2023 | About 4.4% | LBNL estimate of total U.S. electricity use, reported in 2024. |
| 2028 | 6.7%–12% | LBNL 2024 scenario projection; the range reflects scenarios, not certainty. |
| 2030 | 11.8%; scenario range 9.5%–15.3% | LBNL 2025 update, as summarized by its Center of Expertise; a separate forecast from the 2028 projection. |
These are national estimates, not measurements or forecasts for a particular data center, utility service area, or community. They cannot establish that a proposed facility will raise local bills or affect reliability.
Why local electricity planning matters
The U.S. Department of Energy describes data-center demand as growing rapidly, varying by region, and involving large loads that often need firm power continuously. Those characteristics make a project’s expected load and timing, utility capacity, interconnection, transmission needs, generation plans, and cost allocation relevant subjects for local review. Whether a given project requires upgrades, affects reliability, or changes bills depends on evidence in the local utility and regulator record. See the Department of Energy’s overview of electricity demand from data centers.
How data centers use water
A facility may withdraw or consume water directly for on-site cooling. There can also be an indirect water footprint: electricity generation may use water, depending on where and how the power is produced. LBNL’s modeling considers location-specific water use from on-site cooling and electricity generation under different cooling designs and power-supply scenarios. LBNL describes its data-center energy and water modeling.
As a result, a single water number can miss important distinctions. Ask whether a figure describes withdrawals or consumption, on-site use or the broader electricity-related footprint, and annual use or peak demand. The site, cooling system, and electricity supply all affect the answer.
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Cooling choices involve trade-offs
Water-efficient cooling can use more energy, so a design that reduces direct water demand may increase electricity demand. Potential ways to reduce direct water impacts include choosing a site with low water stress, selecting an appropriate cooling system, and considering recycled water where feasible. None of these options can be assumed for a project without its design and supply information.
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A February 2026 review by the UC Berkeley Center for Law, Energy & the Environment found that California’s available reporting had not clearly established how much water data centers use, which sources they draw from, where impacts occur, or how those impacts compare with other uses. The report is specific to California’s policy and legal context; its transparency questions may still help residents elsewhere assess what project information is missing. It recommends clearer reporting of anticipated and actual water use. Read the California report on regulating data-center water use.
What does a data center’s land footprint include?
There is no general acreage figure in the available sources that can responsibly describe every data center. The footprint is site-specific: the parcel, buildings, access roads, substations, transmission connections, generators, and other associated infrastructure may all matter. Planning and environmental-review documents can show which land and infrastructure are included in a particular proposal and what impacts have been assessed.
Berkeley Lab’s own 2025–2045 Long Range Development Plan illustrates the kind of planning material an institution may publish: it describes a long-range plan, land-use projections, and a certified environmental impact report. It is an institutional planning example, not a data-center case study or a universal permit template. See Berkeley Lab’s Long Range Development Plan.
Local governments decide whether and under what conditions a data center may be built. Their review can weigh expected economic gains against effects on local resources, residents, and existing industries. The agencies involved and the required process vary by location.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.What should nearby communities check?
Start with the local planning or zoning case file, then review public materials from the electric utility and water provider. The records available—and the agencies responsible—depend on local law and the project’s approval path.
- Find the land-use and environmental-review file. Look for the parcel map, site plan, zoning or land-use application, and any environmental assessment or impact report. Check which buildings and supporting infrastructure are included, such as roads, substations, transmission lines, and generators. Note what land-use changes and impacts the documents assess.
- Trace the electricity request and planned service. Look for the operator’s projected load and timing, the utility’s service or interconnection plans, and public filings about grid upgrades, reliability, and who pays. Where possible, distinguish the project’s stated demand from the utility’s analysis and any measured operating data.
- Ask for water details that distinguish source, timing, and type of use. Look for projected and actual water use, the source, seasonal or peak demand, the cooling design, and whether reclaimed water is proposed. Check whether the operator has committed to public reporting after operations begin. California’s 2026 report makes anticipated and actual-use disclosure a particularly relevant question, but applicable requirements elsewhere must be checked locally.
- Identify the decision-makers and deadlines. Confirm which agency is reviewing each issue, when public meetings or comment periods are scheduled, and whether approval conditions would require ongoing reporting. Check the current local process rather than assuming another jurisdiction’s rules apply.
Questions to put to officials and the operator
- What are the forecast peak and annual electricity loads, and when are they expected to occur?
- What utility or grid upgrades are required, and how will their costs be allocated?
- What are projected annual water use and peak-day demand? Which water source would supply the facility?
- What happens to water demand during drought or other periods of peak demand?
- Which cooling design is proposed, how does it operate seasonally, and what energy-water trade-off does it create?
- What parcel area and related infrastructure are included in the review?
- Will actual electricity and water use be reported publicly once the facility operates?
How to compare proposals or designs fairly
For a meaningful comparison, use the same time periods and distinguish projections, permitted amounts, and measured use. Compare electricity demand and timing; direct and indirect water use; water source and seasonality; cooling design; parcel and associated infrastructure; local resource conditions; public reporting; and who bears upgrade and operating costs. A national forecast can provide context, but it cannot answer a site-specific question.
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