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In 2002, ASML, Canon and Nikon refreshed plans for 157-nm fluorine lithography after major technical setbacks, but their proposed production scanners were still years away. The roadmaps aimed at 65-nm manufacturing and smaller features; optical problems, material shortages and resist difficulties had already pushed expected deliveries to late 2004 or early 2005. Intel’s 2003 decision to leave 157 nm off its production roadmap helped shift industry attention toward extending 193-nm lithography with water immersion.
What the 2002 roadmaps actually promised
EE Times reported on March 8, 2002, that the three suppliers had once expected full-field 157-nm scanners in 2002–2003. Technical obstacles pushed those expectations back: the companies were then describing production-capable tools for roughly the second half of 2004 through early 2005. Those were roadmap targets, not evidence that the scanners were ultimately delivered or used in commercial production.
The proposals shared a 157-nm fluorine (F2) light source and a goal of printing features for 65-nm-class manufacturing and below. They differed in numerical aperture (NA), image field, mask approach and the distinction between development and production systems.
| Supplier and system | Wavelength and target | NA and image field | Mask strategy | Development or production plan | Period delivery expectation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nikon 157-nm scanner | 157 nm; binary masks for 65-nm features, phase-shifting masks for 55- and 35-nm nodes | 0.85 NA; 22-mm image field | Binary at 65 nm; phase-shifting at 55 and 35 nm | Production-worthy system | Second half of 2004 target, as reported in 2002 |
| Canon FS1 | 157 nm; intended for 65-nm-class manufacturing and below | 0.8 NA; 22 × 26 mm field | Not stated in the 2002 EE Times report | Scanner based on Canon’s FPA-5000 platform; production tools planned | Late 2004 or early 2005 expectation, as reported in 2002 |
| ASML Micrascan VII and TwinScan-based production system | 157 nm; intended for 65-nm-class manufacturing and below | 0.8 NA for the planned TwinScan production system; field size not stated in the 2002 report | Not stated in the 2002 EE Times report | Small-field Micrascan VII for development; TwinScan architecture for production | ASML gave no firm shipment date; late 2004 or early 2005 was an analyst expectation reported in 2002 |
The figures and dates in this comparison describe plans reported at the time. In particular, a “production-worthy” or planned production tool should not be read as a commercially delivered scanner.
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Why 157-nm scanners ran into trouble
Calcium-fluoride optics showed double refraction
Moving from 193-nm argon-fluoride (ArF) light to 157-nm fluorine light promised a way to print smaller patterns, but it required optical materials and components that could perform at the shorter wavelength. ASML’s later technical history describes a fundamental problem found in prototype imaging: calcium fluoride, used for the lenses, had intrinsic birefringence—also called double refraction—that exceeded imaging specifications. In other words, the material could split or alter the polarization of light enough to undermine the precise image the scanner needed to project.
The obstacle was not simply a matter of refining a production schedule. The optical behavior challenged a key assumption behind the 157-nm path, while shortages of suitable lens material and photoresist problems added further engineering and supply constraints. Together, these issues made it harder to achieve the performance, manufacturing readiness and timing the original roadmaps required.
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Cost added pressure to an already difficult transition
EE Times cited industry estimates of up to $25 million per scanner when the systems reached the market. That was a 2002 estimate, not a confirmed selling price. At that projected cost, the technical delays also raised a practical question for chipmakers: whether a difficult, expensive transition to 157 nm was preferable to extending the 193-nm tools and processes they already had.
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Why the industry turned toward 193-nm immersion
In May 2003, Intel said it would remove 157-nm tools from its production roadmap and extend 193-nm scanners through the 90-, 65- and 45-nm generations. That announcement weakened the commercial case for a new 157-nm platform: scanner makers could continue development, but a major prospective customer had chosen a different route. ASML said it remained committed if customers wanted 157 nm; Canon also said it was committed. Nikon was still evaluating whether to continue with 157 nm or move to 193-nm immersion.
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Immersion lithography offered a way to improve 193-nm imaging resolution without making the same abrupt change in light source and optical materials. In the approach described in ASML’s later history, purified water placed between the final lens element and the wafer changes how light propagates, allowing finer patterns to be imaged. ASML said this could preserve existing optics, masks and photoresists while extending the useful range of 193-nm lithography.
By November 2003, ASML’s roadmap treated 193-nm immersion as an extension that could push 157 nm and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography further into the future. Candidate immersion systems were shown for customer shipments beginning in the second quarter of 2006. That was a roadmap expectation—not confirmation here of the systems’ eventual shipment or deployment.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.What happened to 157-nm lithography?
The 157-nm scanner plans captured in 2002 did not become the industry’s practical next step. They were delayed by a serious optical-material problem, compounded by lens-material supply and resist issues, while Intel’s 2003 withdrawal reduced customer momentum. The evidence establishes revised targets and strategic choices, not successful commercial delivery of the named production systems.
For chipmakers, 193-nm immersion was the more workable bridge: it aimed to extend the installed 193-nm approach while avoiding the immediate materials and tooling challenges that made 157 nm difficult. The result was a change in the roadmap’s direction, rather than proof that every 157-nm research effort ended at once.
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