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Computer hardware is the physical equipment that makes a computer system work: its processor, memory, storage, input and output devices, and communication components. Software is the programs and associated data that tell that equipment what operations to perform. “The physical summary of software” is a metaphor, not a formal technical definition: software instructions are represented and carried out through physical states in hardware.
What is computer hardware?
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) defines hardware as “the material physical components of a system.” In a computer, that includes components inside the case as well as devices connected to it. The definition is deliberately broad: it describes what hardware is, not how a particular computer is built. NIST’s hardware glossary attributes the wording to CNSSI 4009-2022 from IETF RFC 4949 Version 2.
Hardware is tangible, but it is not limited to parts you can see or touch while a computer is running. A processor, a memory chip, a keyboard, a display, and a network card all count because each is a physical component with a role in the system.
What are the main parts of a computer?
A useful way to understand a computer is to group its hardware by function. These are categories, not a required inventory: a device may combine several roles, and computers differ in form and design.
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| Hardware role | What it does | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Processing | Executes program instructions and performs operations on data. | Central processing unit (CPU) |
| Working memory | Holds instructions and data that the processor is using for active work. | Main memory, commonly called RAM |
| Persistent storage | Keeps programs and data for later use, including when the system is powered off. | Disk or other storage drive |
| Input | Brings user actions or other external signals into the system and converts them to a form the computer can process. | Keyboard, mouse, touchscreen, scanner |
| Output | Turns processed information into a form people or other devices can use. | Display, printer, speakers |
| Communication | Enables a computer to exchange data with other systems or networks. | Network interface card, router, switch |
These examples describe roles rather than strict boundaries. A touchscreen, for instance, can provide both input and output. Some communication equipment is built into a computer; other equipment is attached separately. IBM’s hardware overview provides further examples of familiar internal components and peripherals.
What is the difference between hardware and software?
Hardware is the physical equipment. Software is the programs and associated data that are stored in and executed by that equipment. NIST’s software glossary supplies the formal term; OpenStax’s computer systems chapter explains how the two work together.
- Hardware provides the physical means to store, move, receive, present, and process information.
- Software provides instructions and data that give those operations a purpose, such as opening a document or responding to a keystroke.
Neither description makes a computer system complete on its own. Hardware can perform operations, but software supplies the instructions and data for a particular task. Software, in turn, needs physical hardware on which to be stored and executed.
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A basic program-execution path shows how the parts fit together. It is a simplified explanation of the process, rather than a description of every low-level step a processor takes.
- The program is kept in persistent storage. A program and its data can remain on a storage device when the computer is off.
- The program is loaded into main memory. When it is needed, its instructions and associated data are placed in working memory for active use. Main memory is distinct from secondary storage: memory supports execution, while secondary storage keeps data available beyond the current session.
- The processor fetches and executes instructions. The CPU carries out the operations specified by the program, using data as needed.
- Input and output connect the system to the outside world. Input hardware translates actions or signals into the computer’s internal representation; output hardware presents results in a usable form.
- Communication hardware exchanges data. Network components provide a path for the computer to send or receive information from other systems.
This sequence is a mental model, not a claim that every program or device follows an identical path. OpenStax describes the roles of the processor, main memory, storage, and input/output in an introductory computer-system context. The Open University’s glossary of computer-system terms distinguishes main memory, used for instructions and data during execution, from secondary memory, which retains programs and data after power is off.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.Where does firmware fit?
Firmware sits near the boundary between hardware and software. NIST describes firmware as programs and data stored in hardware, typically ROM or PROM, that cannot be dynamically written or modified during program execution. That definition’s key condition is about modification during execution; it should not be read as a claim that all modern firmware is impossible to update.
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The label can be useful when discussing software closely associated with a device’s hardware, but the NIST glossary wording is specific to its cited definition. As with the terms hardware and software, context matters.
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