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A 40 MW data center needs a utility service and electrical distribution system sized to the defined load, UPS and standby generation for the loads that must survive an outage, and cooling and heat-rejection equipment sized for the IT heat output at the site’s weather and operating conditions.
Before selecting equipment, resolve what “40 MW” means. It may describe critical IT capacity or the facility’s total electrical demand. Those are different quantities: total facility demand includes cooling, pumps, lighting, power losses and other overhead. The correct architecture also depends on rack density, availability target, climate, water restrictions, expansion plans and the serving utility’s requirements.
Start by defining the 40 MW boundary
For planning, state the load boundary in one sentence: for example, “40 MW of diversified critical IT load at the data-hall bus,” or “40 MW maximum facility demand at the utility meter.” Without that statement, a transformer, generator or chiller schedule can be badly undersized or unnecessarily large.
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Critical IT load versus total facility load
Critical IT load is the power delivered to servers, storage, network equipment and other protected technology. Total facility demand adds electrical losses and mechanical and building loads. Power usage effectiveness (PUE) expresses the relationship:
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PUE = total data-center energy ÷ IT-equipment energy
If 40 MW is critical IT load, the total demand is higher than 40 MW. If 40 MW is the total facility limit, the allowable IT load is lower. The following arithmetic illustrates the boundary; it is not a design recommendation.
| Assumed boundary | Illustrative PUE | Resulting power | Qualification |
|---|---|---|---|
| 40 MW critical IT | 1.20 | 48 MW total facility demand | 1.20 is the California Energy Commission’s July 2025 assumption for the separate SJ04 project, not a universal 40 MW value. |
| 40 MW critical IT | 1.50 | 60 MW total facility demand | Just above 1.5 was reported as the 2023 industry average in an overview citing Uptime Institute’s Global Data Center Survey. |
| 40 MW total facility demand | 1.20 | About 33.3 MW IT load | Simple division for a planning example; actual operating PUE varies with load, weather and plant configuration. |
The same 40 MW label can therefore imply very different utility, generator and cooling ratings. A reported historical comparison placed average PUE at about 2.5 in 2007 and just above 1.5 in 2023. Those are industry observations, not guarantees for a new facility.
The electrical path from grid to rack
A typical conceptual path is:
Utility feeders → site substation and transformers, where required → medium-voltage switchgear and buses → building and data-hall distribution → UPS and power-distribution equipment → protected IT loads.
Utility service and interconnection
The serving utility determines available voltage, feeder capacity, fault current, protection requirements, metering, interconnection studies and the schedule for energization. A 40 MW project may need one or more dedicated feeders, a new substation or an expansion of an existing one. Diverse utility feeds can reduce a single point of failure, but only if they are physically and electrically independent and the utility can maintain that independence.
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Voltage values from another project should not be copied into this one. For example, a current high-density reference design from NVIDIA describes a high-voltage service substation and a 34.5 kV backbone in a 250 MW-class architecture, while explicitly noting that actual site configurations vary. A 40 MW facility could use a different service voltage, topology or ownership boundary.
Substation, transformers and switchgear
Transformers step the utility service to the site’s distribution voltages. Medium-voltage switchgear provides isolation, protection, switching and bus sectionalizing; downstream transformers and low-voltage switchboards feed UPS systems, mechanical plant, lighting and general building loads. Engineers must calculate continuous load, inrush, short-circuit duty, harmonics, voltage drop, selective coordination and available expansion capacity.
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Do not infer a transformer count from the 40 MW label. Transformer ratings depend on whether the number is IT or facility load, diversity, cooling-plant starting behavior, redundancy policy, ambient conditions, future phases and the utility’s preferred arrangement.
Data-hall distribution
Inside each hall, distribution may use busways, remote power panels, overhead or underfloor cabling, and rack-level power distribution units. Dual-corded IT equipment is commonly connected to separate A and B paths. The design must verify that either path can carry the intended load during maintenance or a failure, rather than merely providing two labels on a drawing.
UPS, generators and batteries have different jobs
UPS systems
A UPS protects against voltage disturbances and bridges the interval between loss of utility power and stable generator power. It also conditions power and can provide ride-through for a controlled shutdown where the reliability objective allows one. Decide whether the UPS supports only IT or also selected network, controls, security and mechanical loads. Battery autonomy is a project-specific interval based on transfer time, load and the required operating sequence.
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Standby generation
Generators supply protected loads for longer outages. The design team must specify:
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- Redundancy topology, such as the number of units that must run versus the number installed.
- Automatic transfer behavior, including open-transition or closed-transition operation.
- Fuel type, storage volume, delivery contracts, refill logistics and required runtime.
- Emissions permits, testing limits, noise controls and maintenance bypass arrangements.
The July 2025 California Energy Commission SJ04 project description illustrates how specific this decision becomes: it uses a four-to-make-three generator arrangement for critical IT on each floor and a separate two-to-make-one arrangement for a water-storage yard. Its UPS bridges an open-transition utility-to-generator transfer, with battery intervals tied to the project’s loads. Those arrangements are examples of design questions, not generic prescriptions.
Other California proposals show a different scale and topology. One proposed 99 MW site describes 56 standby generators rated at 3 MW each and a 60 kV on-site substation. Another describes two independent 115 kV feeders, redundant 60/80/100 MVA transformers and up to 72 hours of fuel storage. These records demonstrate site-specific choices; verify project status and local rules before treating proposals as operating facilities.
Battery energy storage
Battery energy-storage systems (BESS) can buffer a facility, support grid services or reduce the need to run generators during selected events. They are not automatically a replacement for a UPS or standby generators. NVIDIA’s DSX Facilities Infrastructure Reference Design Overview states that BESS applicability and sizing are evaluated case by case with original-equipment manufacturers, grid operators and regulators, based on site power architecture, operating objectives, grid requirements and product-specific requirements.
Cooling starts with heat, density and weather
Nearly all electrical power consumed by IT equipment becomes heat. A 40 MW critical IT load therefore represents roughly 40 MW of continuous heat at full load, before accounting for fans, pumps and other facility equipment. The cooling plant must handle the maximum design condition, not just an average day, and must continue to protect the specified loads during utility transfers and equipment maintenance.
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Air cooling with chilled water
In a conventional arrangement, computer-room air handlers (CRAHs) circulate air through the data hall. A chilled-water coil removes heat from the return air; pumps circulate water between the CRAHs and chiller plant; chillers reject heat outdoors. Hot-aisle or cold-aisle containment limits mixing of supply and exhaust air, improving usable cooling capacity and fan efficiency.
Design inputs include rack power density, supply-air temperature and humidity limits, allowable server inlet conditions, airflow paths, fan energy, chilled-water temperatures, pump head and the hottest local weather condition. A low-density enterprise hall and a high-density accelerator hall can require very different air-handler layouts even when their total MW labels match.
Liquid cooling for high-density compute
When rack heat flux exceeds what practical airflows can remove, liquid cooling can supplement or replace some forced-air capacity. Rear-door heat exchangers remove heat at the rack exhaust. Direct-to-chip systems circulate liquid through cold plates on processors and use coolant-distribution units (CDUs) to transfer heat to a facility loop. Immersion cooling places equipment in a dielectric fluid and requires specialized servers, tanks and service procedures; the cited facility overview described it as not yet widespread.
The current NVIDIA DSX reference describes two facility-water temperature loops, central utility buildings with chillers and pumps, dry coolers for outdoor heat rejection, CRAHs for air-cooled loads and redundant liquid-to-liquid CDUs serving a separate technical loop for GPU cold plates. That is an AI-oriented reference architecture, not a universal 40 MW template. Its cabinet thermal figures apply to that product-generation context and should not be assigned to unspecified racks.
Heat rejection and water strategy
Heat can be rejected with air-cooled or dry coolers, evaporative equipment, cooling towers or hybrid systems. Closed-loop air-cooled chillers generally use less water but more energy than water-based evaporative systems, all else equal, according to Principal Real Estate’s data-center overview. The choice depends on water availability and discharge permissions, electricity cost and carbon intensity, ambient design temperature, noise, footprint and operating policy.
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The DSX reference’s dry-cooler path reports no evaporative water use for that heat-rejection method. It also notes that its GPU cooling plant is not UPS-backed and relies on loop thermal mass until generation comes online. That approach is acceptable only when the thermal ride-through interval and restart sequence match the owner’s risk tolerance.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.Reliability is a whole-system decision
Availability cannot be created by adding a second generator to a single cooling pump or by installing dual UPS modules on a shared switchboard. Review common failure points across utility feeders, transformers, switchgear, UPS modules, batteries, generators, fuel systems, chillers, pumps, CDUs, controls and distribution piping.
- Capacity: Can the surviving equipment carry the required load?
- Concurrently maintainable operation: Can planned maintenance occur without taking protected load offline?
- Fault tolerance: Can an unplanned failure occur without exceeding thermal or electrical limits?
- Transfer sequence: Which loads drop, ride through or restart, and in what order?
- Controls: Are electrical and mechanical controls powered and networked through the same protected architecture?
Cooling redundancy must include heat-rejection equipment and water or coolant distribution, not only room air handlers. Generator-backed chillers may be required for the stated outage objective; in other designs, thermal storage allows cooling to coast through generator startup. The correct answer follows from the documented failure-mode analysis.
A practical sizing and design workflow
- Write the design basis. Define IT MW, facility-MW boundary, rack densities, workload mix, operating temperatures, growth phases, availability objective and design weather.
- Build a load schedule. Separate critical IT, noncritical IT, cooling, pumps, fans, UPS losses, lighting, controls and miscellaneous loads. State normal, peak and emergency values.
- Confirm the utility concept. Obtain available service voltage, feeder options, fault duty, interconnection milestones, substation ownership and expansion conditions from the serving utility.
- Select electrical topology. Set bus arrangements, transformer capacity, A/B distribution, UPS configuration, bypass paths, generator count, transfer mode and fuel autonomy.
- Model thermal behavior. Calculate sensible and latent loads, airflow, chilled-water or coolant flow, chiller and heat-rejection capacity, pump power and thermal ride-through.
- Test abnormal cases. Simulate utility loss, generator start failure, transformer outage, pump failure, chiller maintenance, extreme weather, low-water operation and staged IT growth.
- Reserve expansion and commissioning capacity. Provide space, electrical pathways, pipe headers, controls points and utility capacity for planned phases, then commission each mode before accepting live load.
- Verify compliance. A registered engineer and the serving utility must check electrical protection, building and fire codes, generator emissions, fuel and water permits, noise limits, environmental rules and operating restrictions.
Common planning mistakes
- Treating 40 MW as a complete equipment specification instead of defining its boundary.
- Applying a published voltage, rack thermal rating or PUE from another project without matching its scope and climate.
- Sizing generators only for IT while omitting the cooling and controls needed to keep IT online.
- Counting nameplate redundancy without checking shared fuel, controls, switchgear, water and heat-rejection dependencies.
- Choosing evaporative cooling without securing water and discharge approvals, or choosing dry cooling without budgeting for its energy penalty.
- Assuming BESS eliminates the need for UPS ride-through or long-duration generation.
- Using average weather or average IT load instead of the hottest-hour and maximum-load conditions required by the design basis.
What a defensible 40 MW concept should document
At the end of concept design, the owner should have a one-line electrical diagram, utility-interconnection assumptions, a load schedule by operating mode, UPS and generator ride-through sequence, fuel and maintenance strategy, cooling schematic, heat-rejection and water balance, rack-density map, redundancy analysis, expansion plan, permitting matrix and commissioning plan.
There is no generally applicable published count of transformers, generators, chillers or cooling tons for an unspecified 40 MW site. The recognizable infrastructure blocks are utility service, substation and distribution, UPS, generation, heat-removal equipment and controls; their ratings and redundancy are determined by the defined critical load, reliability target, rack density, climate, water constraints and local rules.
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