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There is no standard upgrade package for every utility-scale solar-and-battery project. The required work comes from the interconnection studies for the proposed point of interconnection (POI), the project’s export and operating assumptions, available network capacity, and the condition of the surrounding transmission system.
A study may identify equipment at the POI, broader network upgrades, and additional work on neighboring (“affected”) systems. In some cases, controlled exports, curtailment, a smaller interconnection request, or a battery operating schedule can reduce or defer construction. None guarantees that upgrades will be eliminated.
The short answer: the study, not the project label, determines the upgrades
A large solar plant, a battery, and a co-located solar-plus-storage project can produce very different interconnection requirements at the same location. The transmission provider models the proposed facility against existing equipment, queued projects, power-flow and voltage limits, short-circuit duty, stability requirements, protection settings, and applicable operating rules.
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Four scopes of grid work that can appear in a study
| Scope | What it addresses | What cannot be assumed in advance |
|---|---|---|
| Point-of-interconnection facilities | Physical connection and protection at the agreed POI, including the facilities needed to meter, isolate, control, and safely connect the project. | There is no universal equipment list. A study may or may not require a dedicated substation, transformer, breaker, communications system, or protection change. |
| Network upgrades | Broader transmission work needed to accommodate the project’s injections while maintaining reliable operation, such as relieving a modeled overload or correcting a voltage or stability problem. | The specific line, transformer, control, or technology depends on the violation, topology, queued projects, and provider design. |
| Affected-system upgrades | Work identified by a neighboring transmission system that could experience a reliability impact from the interconnection. | The neighboring system can require additional studies and mitigation even when the host system’s facilities study appears manageable. |
| Regional transmission expansion | Long-term, multi-project planning for facilities serving broader regional or interregional needs. | Regional plans do not by themselves determine a project’s interconnection result or guarantee that a planned facility will be available when the project needs service. |
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) materials distinguish project-level interconnection work from regional planning. FERC Order No. 1920, Order No. 1920-A (November 21, 2024), and Order No. 1920-B (April 11, 2025) concern long-term regional planning and cost allocation; they do not replace a project’s interconnection study.
Why project location and queue position matter
Interconnection analysis evaluates the project against a particular electrical topology and a particular set of assumptions. Important inputs include:
- the proposed POI and voltage level;
- nameplate generation, inverter capability, battery power rating, and energy duration;
- whether solar and storage share a POI or use separate interconnections;
- maximum import and export limits, reactive-power capability, and power-factor requirements;
- charging and discharging schedules, including whether the battery can export during periods when solar output is high;
- other projects in the queue, their readiness, and their withdrawal or restudy status;
- contingencies and seasonal operating conditions required by the provider’s tariff; and
- the reliability criteria of the host and neighboring systems.
These variables explain why two projects with identical nameplate capacities can receive different upgrade lists and cost assignments. A line that looks lightly loaded in an ordinary operating snapshot may be constrained under a contingency or in a season with different generation patterns.
How a battery changes the interconnection question
Co-location can share a POI, but it does not erase impacts
FERC’s interconnection rule permits co-located resources behind one POI to be evaluated together. Sharing a POI can avoid duplicating some facilities, but the provider still has to study the combined inverter behavior, maximum export, charging load, control systems, and protection requirements.
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Export controls can be as important as battery size
A battery’s value to the grid is not simply its megawatt-hour capacity. Its controls can shift exports from sunny midday periods to evening periods, limit simultaneous solar-and-battery output, or cap the project’s net injection. DOE’s 2024 account of the BATRIES project describes this capability as “the flexibility to control when power is exported to (or drawn from) the grid.”
That flexibility matters only if the transmission provider accepts the proposed schedule or operating envelope and can enforce it through controls, telemetry, metering, and the interconnection agreement. A schedule that is accepted for one utility or state is not automatically accepted elsewhere.
Transmission and distribution rules are not interchangeable
DOE reports that state distribution rules have sometimes omitted storage or failed to account for its operating flexibility. California had, at the time of DOE’s April 23, 2024 account, rules allowing developers to specify an operating schedule as a basis for evaluating whether an upgrade might be avoided. This is a state example, not a nationwide rule.
The 2022 McLaren, Abraham, Darghouth, and Forrester report presents an analytical method for distribution-connected photovoltaic systems. It compares infrastructure upgrades, downsizing, curtailment, and battery storage through an “Operating Envelope” and hourly maximum-export limits. Its methods are useful for understanding the trade-off between construction and operating restrictions, but they do not establish a guaranteed solution for every utility-scale transmission interconnection.
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Possible responses when the study finds a constraint
| Response | How it works | Main trade-off to examine |
|---|---|---|
| Build the identified facilities or network upgrade | Add or modify equipment so the project can export under the studied reliability criteria. | Capital cost, permitting, land rights, outage coordination, procurement, and construction lead time. |
| Downsize the interconnection request | Reduce the maximum export or generation capacity modeled in the study. | Lower grid impact may mean less revenue, fewer operating hours, or stranded generation and storage capability. |
| Use controlled export or curtailment | Keep net injection below a limit during constrained conditions, using automatic controls and enforceable operating rules. | Lost production, uncertain curtailment frequency, telemetry and control obligations, and possible penalties for non-compliance. |
| Change storage dispatch | Charge during one period and discharge during another, or prohibit simultaneous exports that create the modeled violation. | Reduced operating flexibility and dependence on a schedule the provider can verify and enforce. |
| Evaluate an alternative transmission technology | Consider tools such as advanced conductors, power-flow controls, transmission switching, voltage-source converters, static VAR devices, synchronous condensers, or tower lifting. | These are candidate solutions, not a prescribed package; feasibility, performance, cost, and construction requirements vary by constraint. |
Compare alternatives on six questions: Will the option meet reliability and technical requirements? How much export capability and curtailment risk remains? Who pays? What is the construction schedule and which dependencies could delay it? Can operating limits be enforced reliably? Does the solution benefit only this project or address a broader regional need?
What the interconnection process normally establishes
- Define the request. The developer submits the POI, site-control information, generation and storage ratings, requested service, control modes, and operating assumptions required by the provider’s tariff.
- Enter the applicable study process. Under FERC Order No. 2023, transmission providers study proposed generating facilities in batches or clusters rather than separate studies for each facility individually. FERC describes a 150-day cluster-study timeline, but implementation, restudies, readiness requirements, and provider-specific procedures affect actual timing.
- Run power-flow and reliability analyses. The provider tests normal and contingency conditions, thermal loading, voltage, short-circuit duty, stability, and protection or control interactions as required by the tariff.
- Identify facilities and network upgrades. The study separates work at the POI from broader network work and assigns estimated costs and technical requirements under the applicable rules.
- Check affected systems. Neighboring transmission providers may study whether the proposed injections affect their systems and may identify additional mitigation.
- Evaluate alternatives. The provider and developer can compare upgrades with export limits, curtailment, a smaller request, storage controls, or alternative transmission technologies where the tariff and technical analysis permit.
- Execute the agreement and meet milestones. The final interconnection agreement records facilities, operating limits, cost responsibility, security requirements, testing, telemetry, and deadlines. Missing readiness or construction milestones can trigger restudies or withdrawal consequences.
Who pays for the upgrades?
Cost responsibility is rule- and study-dependent. FERC’s Order No. 2023 explainer says costs for specific upgrades are allocated among cluster participants using a proportional-impact method. The rule also addresses readiness, site control, study deadlines, withdrawal consequences, co-located resources, and evaluation of alternative transmission solutions.
That federal framework is not a project-specific bill. The provider’s tariff, transition provisions, study results, and executed agreement determine the actual exposure. An affected-system study can create further obligations, and those costs may be separate from the host system’s facilities and network-upgrade estimates.
Regional planning has a different allocation process. A regional facility selected under the Order No. 1920 planning framework may serve multiple needs and be allocated through regional procedures rather than charged as a simple project-specific interconnection upgrade. A project should not assume that a regional plan will absorb its interconnection costs, or that a project-funded upgrade will automatically qualify as regional transmission.
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How long can connection take?
FERC’s 150-day figure is a study-process requirement, not a guaranteed end-to-end connection date. Restudies, affected-system reviews, queue withdrawals, permitting, equipment procurement, outages, and construction can extend the schedule substantially.
The Council of Economic Advisers’ 2026 Economic Report, citing Rand et al. (2024), reports a median interconnection-queue wait of three years. The same report says more than 80% of queued generation projects at the end of 2024 were solar and storage, compared with about 14% in 2014. It also reports an approximately 14% completion rate by capacity. These are queue and completion statistics, not guarantees for an individual project or evidence that every queued project will be built.
DOE’s 2023 summary of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory findings says interconnection costs rose in PJM and MISO and that proposed wind, solar, and storage projects in those territories had higher average network-upgrade costs than gas projects applying there. The summary does not establish a national cost or a universal cost premium, so a project-specific study is still necessary.
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Information to request before committing to a site
- The provider’s current tariff, interconnection procedures, and any transition rules under Order No. 2023.
- The POI voltage, available site-control documentation, and the exact requested import and export capability.
- Separate ratings for solar inverters, battery power, battery energy, and auxiliary load.
- Whether the design allows simultaneous solar and battery export and what net-export cap can be enforced.
- Current queue projects ahead of and near the proposed POI, including known restudies or withdrawals.
- The status and scope of facilities, network, and affected-system studies.
- Assumptions about reactive power, voltage control, fault current, ride-through, telemetry, and protection.
- Which costs are estimates, which are secured through financial arrangements, and which depend on later studies.
- Construction dependencies such as land rights, environmental permits, outage windows, long-lead transformers, and communications networks.
Common mistakes and how to avoid them
Assuming every project needs a new substation
A new substation, transformer, transmission line, or synchronous condenser may be appropriate in one study and unnecessary in another. Treat each as a possible outcome, not a standard requirement.
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Treating a battery as an automatic cost reducer
Storage can reduce coincident exports or shift them to less-constrained hours, but it can also add charging load, inverter controls, protection complexity, and additional operating cases. Ask for modeled export profiles and the enforceable control logic rather than relying on the battery’s nameplate.
Confusing a planned regional line with an available interconnection
The Department of Energy’s National Transmission Planning Study evaluates transmission, generation, and storage across multiple scenarios. Its scenarios test a range of possible futures; they do not declare which future is most likely or approve a particular project, line, or substation.
Using a distribution example to promise a transmission result
Operating-envelope methods and state export schedules can be valuable precedents, but their acceptance depends on the provider, jurisdiction, voltage level, and agreement language.
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Start with the proposed POI and a complete operating model, not a generic equipment checklist. Expect the study to distinguish POI facilities, host-system network upgrades, and possible affected-system work. Then compare construction with downsizing, enforceable export limits, curtailment, storage dispatch controls, and technically suitable transmission technologies.
For a live project, the tariff, study reports, affected-system findings, and interconnection agreement control. Verify current filings and provider-specific requirements because FERC implementation, regional tariffs, and state distribution rules continue to evolve.
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