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The International Space Station (ISS) is a continuously crewed laboratory, not a single-purpose “zero-gravity” test site. Investigations there cover human health, biology and biotechnology, physical science, Earth and space observation, and technology demonstrations. Researchers use the station because it combines sustained microgravity, the space environment, an orbital view of Earth and space, and people who can operate, maintain and adapt experiments in orbit.
There is no authoritative current ranking showing which category is most common. The useful question is what each investigation is trying to learn, why the ISS environment helps, and how a study is prepared, run and analyzed.
What kinds of experiments are sent to the ISS?
NASA’s overview of station science groups investigations into several overlapping fields. A single payload can combine more than one field—for example, a tissue-chip study is biology, biotechnology and human-health research at the same time. NASA lists the following areas without publishing a current, authoritative ranking by experiment count.
| Research area | Typical question | What happens in orbit | What the results could inform |
|---|---|---|---|
| Human health and space medicine | How do long-duration spaceflight and microgravity change the body? | Crew members provide measurements or biological samples, perform assigned health protocols and use monitoring equipment. | Protective measures for astronauts, medical knowledge about changes such as vision or bone and muscle effects, and better understanding of human physiology. A study’s possible application is not the same as a proven treatment. |
| Biology and biotechnology | How do cells, tissues, microbes, animals or plants develop when gravity-driven processes are reduced? | Plants are grown and observed; cells and tissue chips are supplied with fluids, imaged or sampled; cultures may be preserved for return. | Knowledge about development, disease mechanisms, agriculture and biomanufacturing. Individual investigations test specific hypotheses rather than guaranteeing a usable product. |
| Physical science | How do fluids, combustion, materials or other physical processes behave without ordinary buoyancy and convection? | Payloads control liquids, gases, flames or materials, then record images, temperatures, pressures, composition or other measurements. | Improved physical models and designs for spacecraft systems, manufacturing and processes that are difficult to isolate on Earth. |
| Earth and space science | What can a low-Earth-orbit vantage point reveal about Earth, the atmosphere or phenomena in space? | External or internal instruments collect images, spectra, environmental readings or other time-series data. | Better observations and models of Earth systems and the space environment. |
| Technology development and demonstrations | Can a sensor, material, communications system, robotic device or other technology work reliably in space? | Hardware is installed, activated and monitored under actual orbital conditions, sometimes with crew intervention when a test requires it. | Evidence about performance, failure modes and readiness for later spacecraft or terrestrial use. |
NASA’s Station Science 101 and its overview of research in microgravity provide the agency’s broad categories and examples, including vision and other bodily changes, plant growth, cell and tissue-chip work, physical-science investigations and technology demonstrations.
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Why use the International Space Station?
Sustained microgravity
Objects on the ISS appear weightless because the station and everything in it are continuously falling around Earth; Earth’s gravity has not disappeared. “Microgravity” is therefore more accurate than literal “zero gravity.” The environment lets researchers separate or reduce gravity-driven effects that are entangled with buoyancy, sedimentation and convection in a ground laboratory.
Exposure to the space environment
Payloads can experience conditions that are difficult to reproduce together on Earth, including orbital radiation, vacuum outside the pressurized modules, extreme thermal cycling and the mechanics of a spacecraft in orbit. The exact exposure depends on whether equipment is inside the station or mounted externally, so an investigation’s description must be checked rather than assuming every study encounters every condition.
A long-duration orbital platform
The ISS can support observations and biological or materials processes over periods longer than a brief parabolic flight or a short sounding-rocket mission. Researchers can schedule repeated measurements, compare changes over time and preserve samples at selected points in an experiment.
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A crewed laboratory with ground support
Astronauts can install equipment, change samples, respond to an unexpected result, repair or reconfigure hardware, and package material for return. That human presence is a major difference from an entirely autonomous satellite. It does not mean every experiment is performed by hand: some payloads run automatically with scheduled crew checks or interventions.
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A low-Earth-orbit vantage point
Instruments looking outward or down at Earth can collect measurements from a useful orbital perspective while operators on the ground plan observations and receive data. NASA describes these combined capabilities as reasons station research can address questions that ordinary laboratories and short-duration microgravity platforms cannot answer as effectively. See NASA’s examples of station science and technology results for the range of investigations, while keeping each study’s demonstrated result separate from a proposed future application.
How an ISS experiment gets from an idea to orbit
Flight research is a multi-stage project. The order and paperwork vary by investigation, but the major path is consistent.
- Define the question and hypothesis. Researchers state what they want to learn, what comparison is needed and which measurements could distinguish competing explanations. They design controls and determine how samples, images, sensor readings or other data will be collected.
- Submit a proposal for review. NASA evaluates proposals for scientific merit and relevance to agency goals. Selection is not an automatic promise of a launch; an approved investigation still has to satisfy safety, engineering, operational and scheduling requirements.
- Receive a mission assignment. A selected investigation is assigned to a flight opportunity, usually months before launch. Teams then coordinate the facility, launch vehicle, cargo timing, crew time, data links, sample return and disposal or storage plans.
- Complete approvals and safety work. Teams document hazards, containment, electrical and mechanical interfaces, biological controls, thermal limits and emergency procedures. Reviews can require redesigns before hardware and procedures are cleared for flight.
- Build and test the payload. Hardware and supplies are prepared to flight standards. Investigators run ground tests, calibrate sensors and take preflight measurements so that an orbital reading has a meaningful baseline. Because liquids, bubbles and loose objects behave differently in microgravity, teams may rotate or reorient equipment on Earth and test containment and airflow before launch.
- Train the crew and write flight procedures. Astronauts practice the exact sequence, tool use, sample handling, time limits and contingency steps. Procedures must be unambiguous enough for a crew member to execute safely while allowing the ground team to respond if conditions change.
- Launch, install and check out. The payload travels as cargo, is transferred to the station and connected to its assigned facility. Initial checks verify power, communications, seals, temperatures and sensors before the scientific run begins.
- Operate in orbit. Depending on the design, crew members activate equipment, load or exchange samples, make observations, take measurements, maintain systems or troubleshoot. Automated sequences may perform routine work while astronauts provide oversight and scheduled interactions.
- Preserve and return material when required. Samples can be frozen, chemically fixed, refrigerated or otherwise stabilized at a defined time. Return logistics determine which material comes back to Earth and when; other data may be transmitted electronically or remain stored on station until downlink.
- Analyze and publish. Scientists combine telemetry, images, sensor records, crew notes and returned samples with ground controls and preflight measurements. Data quality checks, statistical analysis, interpretation and peer review can take substantial additional time after collection.
NASA expert Emily Furfaro summarizes the preparation burden in the agency’s transcript: “So, as you can tell, for every experiment that we do on the International Space Station, there’s a whole team of scientists on the ground that has spent years developing the experiment design.” The full interview is available in NASA’s May 28, 2025 transcript.
How microgravity changes the practical design
Containment replaces ordinary bench technique
On Earth, a dropped screw falls to a surface and a spilled liquid pools. In orbit, both can float into ventilation paths, optics or electronics. Payloads therefore use sealed containers, glove boxes or glove bags, fasteners, Velcro and carefully defined cleanup procedures. A containment choice is part of the experiment’s science and safety case, not merely tidiness.
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Liquids and bubbles become experimental variables
Without buoyancy-driven separation, a bubble may remain where it was created, block a microfluidic channel or distort an optical measurement. Liquids can cling to surfaces or form shapes that differ from a ground control. Hardware may include bubble traps, specialized reservoirs, surface treatments and controlled flow paths. Teams test how to fill, drain and sample the system before launch.
Reduced convection changes heat and gas transport
Warm fluid does not rise in the familiar way, and gases around an organism or flame mix differently. Investigators must account for forced airflow, fan settings, thermal gradients and the position of sensors. A plant, cell culture or combustion experiment can therefore need a different chamber design and a carefully specified ventilation pattern.
Controls and ground comparisons remain essential
Microgravity is only one changing condition. Temperature, radiation, vibration, cabin atmosphere, crew handling and hardware differences can also affect a result. Researchers use ground controls, preflight baselines and, where possible, matched samples to identify which observation is attributable to the orbital environment.
What astronauts actually do during a study
A crew task list can range from a brief inspection to repeated hands-on work over many days. Common duties include:
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- Installing a cartridge, growth chamber, sensor or experiment module in a designated station facility.
- Starting a run at a specified time and recording the configuration, lighting, temperature or other conditions.
- Adding nutrients, exchanging fluid, transferring a sample or fixing tissue so that a later measurement represents a defined stage.
- Taking photographs, microscope images or manual readings that complement automated sensors.
- Checking alarms and status data, cleaning a component, replacing a consumable or responding to a fault under ground-team direction.
- Freezing, refrigerating, chemically preserving or otherwise packaging samples for return.
Ground controllers and investigators plan the timeline, monitor telemetry and advise on anomalies. Crew observations can reveal a problem that a sensor misses, but crew time is limited, so many payloads automate repetitive operations and reserve astronaut involvement for setup, sampling, maintenance and decisions that require human judgment.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.Concrete examples of ISS investigations
Human vision and body changes
Long-duration flight can alter the body. Investigations of vision and other physiological changes collect measurements from crew members over time, then compare them with preflight and postflight data. The objective is to understand the mechanism and risk, not to claim that one station study has already produced a complete medical solution.
Plant growth
Plant studies examine how roots, shoots, water delivery, light and gas exchange work when gravity no longer provides the usual directional cues. Crew members may seed chambers, adjust lighting or nutrient delivery, photograph growth and preserve tissue. The resulting data can support life-support research and controlled-environment agriculture, while remaining specific to the tested species and setup.
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Miniaturized tissue models can expose human cells to microgravity and controlled chemical conditions. A crew may install fluidic cartridges, start a run, exchange media and preserve samples for microscopy or molecular analysis on Earth. These systems can help investigate biological pathways, but a tissue-chip result is not automatically equivalent to a clinical trial or an approved therapy.
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Fluid behavior, combustion and materials
Physical-science payloads isolate variables that are hidden by buoyancy on Earth. Cameras and sensors can track a bubble, a moving interface, a flame or a material’s solidification while the hardware controls temperature, pressure and flow. Such measurements improve models and engineering designs; they do not guarantee a commercial process without additional testing.
Earth, space and technology observations
External instruments and internal demonstrations can collect Earth imagery, space-environment data or performance information about a new device. A technology demonstration is successful only if its stated performance and reliability criteria are met under the test conditions; the demonstration itself is evidence, not a promise of routine operational use.
How to check a named experiment or facility
For a specific investigation, use NASA’s Space Station Research Explorer. It provides searchable experiment and facility records, objectives, descriptions, imagery, results and publications. The database is dynamic, so check the current record for status instead of assuming that an experiment is still operating, still aboard the station or already complete. Read the objective and reported results separately: an investigation can be designed to test a hypothesis or technology even when no practical product has yet resulted.
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The station supplies a distinctive environment and operational capabilities, but it is not a shortcut around experimental controls. Results apply to the tested organisms, materials, hardware, exposure and schedule. Small sample sizes, limited crew time, launch vibration, delayed sample return and differences between orbital and ground controls can constrain interpretation. Researchers may need follow-up flights, larger terrestrial studies or clinical work before a finding supports a broader claim.
The clearest way to read an ISS result is to ask four questions: What hypothesis was tested? Which part of the procedure occurred in orbit? What measurements or samples were actually collected? What comparison supports the conclusion? Those answers distinguish an observation made in microgravity from a demonstrated benefit on Earth.
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