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Weather balloons carry radiosondes that measure atmospheric pressure, temperature and relative humidity as they rise. GPS tracking of the radiosonde’s position supplies wind speed and direction aloft. Together, these observations create a vertical profile called a sounding. Forecast centers combine soundings from many locations with satellite, surface and previous-weather data to initialize computer weather-prediction models and to support severe-storm, aviation and marine forecasts.
The balloon is only the lift. The radiosonde is the sensor and transmitter, and the ground system receives its measurements while the package ascends through the atmosphere.
What a weather balloon actually measures
A radiosonde is a small instrument package suspended below a hydrogen- or helium-filled balloon. As the package rises, it samples the atmosphere at successive heights and sends observations by radio to a ground receiver. NOAA summarizes the direct observations as pressure, temperature and relative humidity. The resulting profile shows how those values change above one launch site, rather than describing only conditions at the surface.
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| Field | What it tells forecasters | How it is obtained |
|---|---|---|
| Pressure | The force exerted by the overlying atmosphere at the radiosonde’s height. | Measured by a pressure sensor in the radiosonde. |
| Temperature | Thermal conditions through the vertical column of air. | Measured directly by a temperature sensor. |
| Relative humidity | How close the air is to saturation at each level. | Measured directly by the radiosonde’s humidity sensor. |
These three measurements are the technical core of a radiosonde observation. A common phrase such as “weather balloon data” can obscure that distinction: the balloon carries the package, but the radiosonde produces the atmospheric readings.
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Wind is derived from tracking
Wind speed and direction are not normally listed as a fourth direct sensor measurement. The ground system tracks the radiosonde’s position, commonly with GPS, while the package is carried by the air. The change in position over time provides the motion of the air mass and therefore wind speed and direction at successive heights. NOAA uses the term rawinsonde for a report that combines radiosonde measurements with this tracked-wind information.
Processed or archived reports can contain additional fields. NOAA’s upper-air products include geopotential height, dew-point depression and elapsed time since launch alongside pressure, temperature, humidity and wind. Those are report fields available for analysis; their presence does not mean every one is a separate direct sensor reading on the package.
How the balloon collects a vertical profile
Launch, transmission and tracking
The radiosonde hangs beneath the inflated balloon and transmits observations continuously or at frequent intervals during ascent. A receiving station on the ground records the radio signal, associates measurements with time and position, and calculates the height and wind information used in the final sounding.
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Most radiosonde launches worldwide are coordinated around 00Z and 12Z (the standard UTC observation times). National weather services can add launches when severe weather is developing, because a new profile can reveal how the atmosphere has changed since the routine observation.
A demanding flight environment
NOAA describes flights that can last more than two hours and rise above 115,000 feet (35,000 metres). It also gives an example of temperatures near −130°F (−92°C) encountered by the instrument. These figures describe the demanding conditions a flight may experience, not a guaranteed duration, altitude or minimum temperature for every launch. The balloon eventually expands and bursts; the radiosonde then descends, often under a small parachute, while the useful ascent profile has already been transmitted.
How observations become forecast information
Feeding numerical weather-prediction models
Forecast models need an estimate of the atmosphere’s three-dimensional state. Surface stations describe conditions near the ground, while satellites provide broad coverage from above. A radiosonde adds a high-resolution vertical slice of pressure, temperature, moisture and wind at a known location. Forecast centers combine that slice with observations from other systems and with the model’s previous forecast, a process commonly called data assimilation.
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The resulting analysis is used to start computer-based weather-prediction calculations. Better knowledge of the upper-air state can correct errors in the model’s initial conditions, which then influence forecasts over the following hours and days. A single sounding is local, so its greatest value comes when it is interpreted with profiles from neighboring stations and with other observing systems.
Severe-storm forecasting
For severe-weather operations, forecasters examine the measured temperature, moisture and wind structure above the surface. The profile helps them assess the atmosphere’s current state before storms form and monitor changes during an event. Extra launches can provide a fresh look when the routine 00Z or 12Z observations no longer represent rapidly changing conditions. The observations are one input to a forecast decision, not a standalone storm prediction.
Aviation and marine forecasts
Aircraft operations depend on conditions at cruising and approach altitudes, where winds, temperature and moisture can differ sharply from surface observations. Radiosonde profiles support aviation forecasts by supplying that upper-air information. Marine forecasts likewise use the observed vertical structure and wind field together with surface and satellite data to describe conditions over water.
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Research, pollution studies and satellite checks
NOAA lists additional uses that extend beyond daily forecasts:
- Weather and climate research based on observed atmospheric profiles.
- Air-pollution research, where vertical structure helps characterize how pollutants are distributed above the ground.
- “Ground truth” for satellite data: an in-situ profile can be compared with a satellite retrieval to evaluate and improve remote observations.
Reading a sounding and the charts built from it
What a sounding shows
A sounding is the set of observations through the depth of the atmosphere at one launch location. Meteorologists commonly plot it on a Skew-T diagram. NOAA’s Skew-T plot guide explains how the pressure, temperature, moisture and wind information is displayed so forecasters can inspect the profile layer by layer.
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Because pressure decreases with height, sounding diagrams use pressure as a vertical coordinate rather than treating altitude as the only reference. Geopotential height in the archived data provides another way to relate pressure levels to physical height. Dew-point depression, when available, indicates the separation between air temperature and dew point and therefore the moisture relationship at that level.
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Why one balloon is not enough
A single sounding represents one point in space and one launch time. It cannot describe an entire state, region or ocean basin. Upper-air charts combine observations from many stations to reveal horizontal gradients and larger-scale patterns. Comparing neighboring soundings helps forecasters determine whether a feature is local or part of a broader system.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.How many stations contribute observations?
Station totals depend on what is being counted and on the date. NOAA’s educational radiosonde page describes about 1,300 upper-air stations worldwide and says the U.S. National Weather Service operates observations from 92 stations, with additional NWS-supported sites in the Caribbean. Those figures are published counts, not a live inventory of currently launching sites.
NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) Integrated Global Radiosonde Archive (IGRA) represents more than 2,800 globally distributed stations, includes records dating back to 1905, and offers recent data near real time from about 800 stations. The archive count includes historical and contributed records, so it should not be compared directly with the number of active launch facilities.
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|---|---|---|
| About 1,300 stations | Worldwide upper-air station count cited by NOAA. | A broad network estimate; the page does not give a publication date or promise a current station inventory. |
| 92 stations | U.S. National Weather Service observation sites cited by NOAA, plus supported Caribbean sites. | A U.S.-focused operational count in the cited description. |
| More than 2,800 stations in IGRA | Stations represented in NCEI’s historical and recent archive. | Includes records accumulated over time and is not a count of active balloons today. |
| About 800 near-real-time stations in IGRA | Stations supplying recent data to the archive. | Coverage of the near-real-time portion, not the archive’s full historical station set. |
Using the historical archive responsibly
IGRA 2.2 is the current version identified on NCEI’s product page at the time of the cited description. NCEI says this version adds two real-time BUFR data streams to help fill gaps in the archive. The product contains multiple observation levels and variables, including pressure, temperature, geopotential height, relative humidity, dew-point depression, wind direction, wind speed and elapsed time since launch.
The archive is quality controlled, but quality control does not make every long-term series perfectly uniform. NCEI warns that jumps or discontinuities can result from instrument changes, altered observing practices or a station moving to a new site. If the goal is a climate trend rather than a weather case study, those non-atmospheric changes must be considered. NOAA points users toward adjusted products such as RATPAC or other homogenized datasets for analyses that require greater long-term consistency.
A practical workflow for using balloon data
- Identify the launch time and station. Confirm the observation’s UTC time and location before comparing it with a forecast or another sounding.
- Check the measured and derived fields. Separate direct pressure, temperature and relative-humidity observations from wind calculated from tracked position. Note whether the source is a raw observation or a processed archive record.
- Inspect the complete vertical profile. Look at changes with height, not just the surface value. Use the Skew-T representation when you need to examine the profile visually.
- Compare neighboring stations. Use upper-air charts and additional soundings to determine whether the pattern extends across a region.
- Place it in the model context. Forecast centers assimilate the observations with satellite, surface and previous-model data. A sounding is evidence that improves the initial analysis, not a forecast by itself.
- Check data continuity for historical work. For multi-year or climate analyses, review station moves, instrument changes and observing-practice changes documented for the archive before interpreting a shift as atmospheric.
Limits readers should keep in mind
- Spatial sampling is uneven. Balloons provide detailed profiles only at launch sites, with large areas between stations.
- Timing matters. A routine sounding may be hours old when a fast-moving storm develops, which is why supplemental launches can be ordered.
- Counts change. Published network and archive totals can change as stations open, close or change reporting status.
- Archive fields are not all raw sensor readings. Some values are calculated, transformed or added during processing.
- Historical comparisons need metadata. A discontinuity can reflect equipment, procedures or location rather than a real atmospheric change.
Where the data fit in modern forecasting
Weather balloons remain valuable because they measure the atmosphere vertically and directly at a time when forecasts require a three-dimensional starting state. Satellites and surface networks supply breadth; radiosondes supply a calibrated, ascending profile through the air column. Forecasters and models use the combination to understand current conditions, initialize predictions and update decisions for storms, aircraft and marine operations.
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