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Use isothermal microcalorimetry (IMC) to measure heat generated while a battery operates at a controlled temperature. Use accelerating rate calorimetry (ARC) to determine when a cell begins to self-heat and how temperature and pressure develop toward thermal runaway under nearly adiabatic conditions. The instruments answer different questions, so neither is a universal replacement for the other. A battery program that needs both operating thermal characterization and hazard data may use them sequentially, while keeping their boundary conditions and interpretation separate.
IMC and ARC answer different battery-safety questions
The practical choice starts with the event you need to understand:
- Operating heat: How much heat does the cell produce during charging, discharging, storage, aging, phase transitions, or parasitic reactions? IMC is the direct fit.
- Self-heating and runaway: At what temperature does self-heating become detectable, and how do temperature, pressure, gas release, and failure progress? ARC is the direct fit.
IMC holds a cell or sample at an essentially constant, controlled temperature and measures heat flow into or out of the calorimeter. ARC progressively heats a sample, waits for equilibration, and searches for self-heating in a near-adiabatic environment. Because the thermal boundaries differ, a heat-flow trace from IMC is not interchangeable with an ARC temperature-versus-time curve.
| Decision axis | Isothermal microcalorimetry (IMC) | Accelerating rate calorimetry (ARC) |
|---|---|---|
| Primary condition | Cell held at a controlled, nearly constant temperature | Near-adiabatic environment; sample temperature follows self-heating |
| Main question | How much heat is generated during controlled operation or reactions? | When does self-heating start, and how does the thermal event progress? |
| Typical battery use | Charging/discharging heat, entropic and polarization heat, phase changes, parasitic reactions, aging studies | Thermal stability, runaway onset, pressure rise, venting and decomposition behavior |
| Primary outputs | Heat-flow rate and cumulative heat; can be synchronized with electrochemical data | Temperature and pressure versus time; optional voltage, gas, and visual observations |
| Important limitation | Thermal inertia can smooth or delay fast heat-flow features | Near-adiabatic results require careful interpretation and scaling before they are applied to real events |
| Best fit | Operational thermal characterization and degradation research | Safety-hazard and runaway characterization |
A 2026 review in the Journal of The Electrochemical Society describes battery IMC measurements with “microwatt (or better) accuracy and precision.” That capability is a description of the reviewed measurement approach, not a guarantee for every instrument, cell holder, or test protocol. ASTM International’s active guide, E1981-26, describes ARC as a method for obtaining temperature and pressure data under nearly adiabatic conditions; it is a thermal-stability guide, not a battery pass/fail certification.
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What isothermal microcalorimetry tells you
Heat from normal operation
IMC measures the heat-flow signal while the battery remains at a selected temperature. By running electrochemical cycling at the same time, researchers can relate heat to current, state of charge, voltage, and elapsed time. The result can separate reversible and irreversible contributions that matter for efficiency, thermal management, and degradation.
For example, a 2014 study by L. E. Downie, S. R. Hyatt, A. T. B. Wright, and J. R. Dahn used IMC with lithium-ion pouch cells to distinguish polarization and entropic heat flow from heat associated with parasitic chemical reactions as functions of state of charge and time. The cells included high-voltage LiCoO2/graphite and NMC442/graphite chemistries. This demonstrates how IMC can connect a small heat signal to specific electrochemical or chemical processes; it was not a direct comparison with ARC.
Phase changes and side reactions
Small thermal events may precede a visible temperature rise. IMC can reveal heat associated with structural or phase changes and with parasitic reactions during storage or cycling. That makes it useful for comparing formulations, electrode limits, formation procedures, and aging conditions where the key evidence is cumulative heat or a change in baseline rather than a dramatic excursion.
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Time-response limitation
High sensitivity does not mean unlimited time resolution. The calorimeter, cell holder, sensor, and surrounding materials have thermal inertia. A peer-reviewed study by Alexander Kunz, Clara Berg, Franziska Friedrich, Hubert A. Gasteiger, and Andreas Jossen identifies this thermal inertia as a low-pass limitation that can smooth, broaden, or delay rapidly changing heat-flow features. Their optimized holder and processing approach were intended to improve time resolution.
When interpreting an IMC trace, document the apparatus response and any correction or deconvolution. Do not present every peak as instantaneous cell behavior. A setup that is excellent for microwatt-scale steady heat may still under-resolve a millisecond or second-scale event.
What accelerating rate calorimetry tells you
Nearly adiabatic self-heating
ARC heats a sample in increments, waits for the sample and instrument to equilibrate, and searches for a defined self-heating rate. If self-heating is detected, the instrument can follow the exotherm while minimizing heat loss to the surroundings. This approximates the condition in which a cell’s own reaction heat drives its temperature upward.
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ASTM E1981-26 describes “a calorimetric device designed to obtain temperature and pressure data as a function of time for systems undergoing a physico-chemical change under nearly adiabatic conditions.” The guide gives a typical instrument range from ambient to 500 °C, while noting that actual ranges may be specified by the user. Treat that range as a guide characteristic, not a universal operating limit for every ARC system.
Runaway onset and progression
ARC methods for commercial lithium-ion cells can identify the onset of self-heating, separator-melting endotherms, pressure release, maximum reaction temperature, and visual evidence of decomposition. Depending on the setup, the cell can also be monitored for voltage, gas composition or quantity, and failure observations. The commonly used heat-wait-seek sequence is important: the instrument heats by a programmed increment, waits, and seeks self-heating before continuing or tracking the exotherm.
Different chemistries and configurations
A NIOSH publication from June 29, 2020, used ARC to investigate externally heated commercial LFP, LTO, and NMC batteries. Researchers placed cells in a sealed steel canister and monitored voltage plus temperatures at the cell surface, in the canister air, and at the canister surface. This illustrates ARC’s use across chemistries; it does not rank those chemistries or establish a universal safety order.
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Pressure and energy interpretation
Pressure is often essential to a safety question because venting and gas generation can precede or accompany thermal failure. However, pressure and temperature are strongly affected by the chamber, sensor placement, free volume, and sealing arrangement. Report those details with the result.
ARC can provide total energy yield during a thermal-runaway event, but total energy does not reveal how much energy was conducted through the cell casing versus vented with ejecta and gas. A NASA technical article published September 4, 2019, describes a separate calorimeter for 18650-sized cells intended to measure total energy while determining conducted and vented fractions. That distinction matters when a propagation or mitigation model needs the heat delivered to neighboring cells rather than only the source cell’s total release.
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Choose IMC when the decision concerns operating heat
- Quantify heat during charge, discharge, pulse operation, or rest.
- Compare entropic and polarization heat as state of charge changes.
- Detect phase transitions or low-level parasitic reactions.
- Measure how aging, storage, or formulation changes alter cumulative heat.
- Provide thermal terms for an electrochemical or thermal-management model.
Choose ARC when the decision concerns a hazard event
- Estimate the temperature at which self-heating becomes measurable.
- Characterize runaway onset and the subsequent temperature trajectory.
- Observe pressure rise, venting, gas generation, or decomposition.
- Determine a maximum reaction temperature under the selected near-adiabatic configuration.
- Supply evidence for hazard analysis, with scaling and complementary abuse tests where required.
Use both when the program spans operation and failure
A staged program can first use IMC to map heat generation over normal operating and aging conditions, then use ARC to examine the stability margin and failure progression of selected states of charge or aged cells. The methods can also be run on matched samples in parallel. State the order, because an IMC result at controlled temperature and an ARC result under near-adiabatic conditions describe different portions of the battery’s behavior.
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Designing an IMC experiment
- Define the thermal question. Specify whether you need heat-flow rate, cumulative heat, reversible heat, irreversible heat, a side-reaction signal, or a comparison between states of charge.
- Fix the cell and operating condition. Record chemistry, format, capacity, state of charge, voltage limits, current profile, temperature set point, rest periods, and cell age. A result from a pouch cell should not automatically be transferred to a cylindrical or prismatic design.
- Match the holder to the cell. Account for electrical connections, mechanical restraint, thermal contact, and the holder’s heat capacity. The holder is part of the measurement system and influences time response.
- Establish a baseline. Run the instrument and an appropriate reference before interpreting small signals. Record drift, ambient conditions, calibration status, and any empty-holder or dummy-cell measurement used to remove background heat.
- Synchronize electrochemical and calorimetric data. Use a common time base for current, voltage, temperature, and heat flow. Mark transitions such as the start of a pulse or a change in rest condition.
- Check response time. Use a known transition or the instrument’s validated response characterization to determine whether a feature is broadened or delayed. Apply a documented response correction only when its assumptions fit the experiment.
- Report uncertainty and integration choices. State how baseline subtraction, filtering, peak integration, and cumulative heat were calculated. Include repeatability across cells rather than implying that one trace represents a population.
Designing an ARC experiment
- Define the failure question and endpoint. Decide whether the endpoint is self-heating onset, a specified self-heating rate, pressure release, maximum temperature, total energy, gas collection, or visual decomposition.
- Specify the sample state. Record chemistry, format, manufacturer or build variant, state of charge, preconditioning, age, defects, and whether the sample is a whole cell, module, electrode, electrolyte, or other subassembly.
- Choose the chamber and instrumentation. Document thermocouple locations, pressure transducer range, voltage monitoring, gas sampling, free volume, sealing method, and any optical or visual observation. Sensor placement can change the apparent onset and peak values.
- Set the heat-wait-seek program. Define heat increments, wait times, self-heating threshold, maximum temperature, and abort conditions. The method should allow the sample to equilibrate before the instrument searches for self-heating.
- Control hazards and containment. Use a chamber, shielding, vent path, and remote operation suitable for the cell’s possible pressure and energy release. The test plan must address fragments, hot gases, toxic products, and post-test handling.
- Capture synchronized channels. Record sample temperature and pressure against time, and add voltage, gas, and visual channels when they are needed to identify the failure sequence.
- Describe scaling before using the data. Relate the measured sample and chamber to the cell, module, pack, storage, shipping, or processing event being modeled. Do not treat the ARC curve as a direct simulation of a field event.
How to interpret results without overclaiming
IMC results
A higher heat-flow signal can indicate greater irreversible reaction heat, a different electrochemical pathway, or an instrument or baseline effect. Compare matched conditions and inspect the voltage, current, state-of-charge, and aging records before assigning a mechanism. Cumulative heat is meaningful only with a stated integration window and baseline method.
A low IMC signal does not prove that a cell is immune to runaway. It means that little heat was detected under the tested operating condition and time window. A later ARC or abuse experiment may still reveal a high-temperature exotherm.
ARC results
Self-heating onset is conditional on the sample state, heat-wait-seek settings, detection threshold, chamber, sensor location, and thermal losses. Report the configuration with the onset value. A higher onset temperature in one setup is not automatically a universal safety ranking.
ASTM cautions that ARC data seldom directly simulate real processing, storage, or shipping events without suitable scaling. Use ARC to characterize thermal stability and derive parameters for a hazard model, then validate the model with tests that reproduce the relevant environment, such as propagation, mechanical, electrical, or environmental abuse testing.
Common mistakes and their fixes
| Mistake | Why it misleads | Better practice |
|---|---|---|
| Calling IMC a runaway test | Controlled-temperature heat flow does not reproduce a near-adiabatic runaway trajectory. | Use IMC for operational and reaction heat; use ARC or an appropriate abuse method for self-heating and runaway. |
| Calling ARC a normal-use thermal test | Near-adiabatic conditions exaggerate heat retention compared with many real environments. | Use ARC for stability and hazard parameters, then scale and validate against the target event. |
| Assuming microwatt sensitivity means instantaneous response | Thermal inertia can smooth and delay fast features. | Characterize the holder and instrument response and disclose corrections. |
| Comparing onset temperatures without setup details | Thresholds, sensor placement, free volume, and sample state affect the result. | Report the full configuration and compare only matched protocols. |
| Treating total ARC energy as conducted heat | Total yield includes energy conducted through the casing and energy vented from the cell. | Use a calorimeter or instrumentation designed to resolve conducted and vented fractions when propagation modeling needs them. |
| Using one cell to represent a chemistry | Cell-to-cell variation, aging, and manufacturing differences can be substantial. | Test an appropriate population and state the sample-selection rules. |
| Describing ASTM E1981-26 as certification | The document is a guide to thermal-stability calorimetry, not a battery approval test. | Use the guide for method practice and identify the separate regulatory or customer requirement. |
Standards, reporting, and evidence quality
ASTM lists E1981-26 as the active edition of its accelerating-rate-calorimetry guide, last updated February 23, 2026. Check the current edition when planning work because standards, terminology, and recommended procedures can change. The guide’s scope concerns temperature and pressure measurements and calculations under nearly adiabatic conditions.
A defensible report should identify:
- Cell chemistry, format, capacity, state of charge, age, and sample count.
- Instrument model or configuration, calibration, holder or chamber, and thermal boundary condition.
- Temperature and pressure sensor locations, ranges, sampling rate, and filtering.
- IMC baseline and response handling, or ARC heat-wait-seek thresholds and increments.
- Electrical profile, rest periods, atmosphere, containment, and safety controls.
- Definitions for heat-flow onset, self-heating onset, runaway, venting, maximum temperature, and total energy.
- Uncertainty, repeatability, exclusions, and the scaling used for any real-world prediction.
A practical decision framework
- Write the question as a measurable statement. “How much heat does this cell generate during a 2C discharge?” points to IMC. “At what temperature does this charged cell self-heat and vent?” points to ARC.
- Choose the output before the instrument. Select heat-flow and cumulative heat for operating studies; select temperature, pressure, and failure-sequence data for runaway studies.
- Check time and thermal scales. If the event is faster than the IMC setup can resolve, use a faster method or validate the response correction. If the target event is not near adiabatic, plan a scaling or complementary test for ARC data.
- Match the sample and boundary condition. Use the same chemistry, form factor, state of charge, and aging condition that the decision concerns.
- Plan the interpretation and follow-up. Decide in advance how an onset, heat rate, pressure peak, or energy result will change the design, operating limit, or mitigation measure.
Bottom line for battery safety teams
IMC is the better choice when the safety question begins with heat generated during controlled battery operation or low-level reactions. ARC is the better choice when it begins with thermal stability, self-heating, pressure development, or runaway progression. Their data are complementary rather than interchangeable. Use the method whose thermal boundary and outputs match the decision, document setup-dependent limitations, and scale ARC findings before applying them to a real cell, module, pack, storage, or shipping scenario.
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