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Use iproute2’s ip command to inspect and change every major part of a Linux VPS network: device state, addresses, routes, policy rules, neighbors, namespaces and tunnels. The changes take effect immediately in the kernel, but most are runtime-only. The safe workflow is to inspect first, change one layer at a time, verify the kernel’s decision, and then encode a tested configuration in the network manager used by your distribution and VPS provider.
What iproute2 manages
iproute2 is the standard Linux networking toolkit. Its central interface is ip, which shows and manipulates routing, network devices, interfaces and tunnels. Unlike a single-purpose configuration utility, it exposes the kernel’s networking objects directly.
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| Object | Main command | What it controls |
|---|---|---|
| Link | ip link |
Physical or virtual device state, MTU, MAC address, and device creation or deletion |
| Address | ip address |
IPv4 and IPv6 prefixes assigned to a link |
| Route | ip route |
Where packets go and which next hop or interface they use |
| Rule | ip rule |
Which routing table is consulted for a packet |
| Neighbor | ip neigh |
ARP (IPv4) and neighbor discovery (IPv6) cache entries |
| Socket diagnostics | ss |
Listening services, established connections and protocol state |
| Namespace | ip netns |
Separate network stacks for containers, tests or tenants |
| Tunnel | ip tunnel and link-type commands |
Encapsulated or virtual links such as GRE, VXLAN or WireGuard-related interfaces |
Keep the layers separate. A device can be administratively down even when it has an address, and an address can exist without a usable route. A correct route can still fail if neighbor resolution or the destination service is broken.
Before changing a production VPS
- Use an account with
sudoor root privileges for changes. Read-only inspection normally works as an unprivileged user. - Keep your current SSH session open while changing the management interface, address or default route. Open a second session if possible.
- Confirm the provider’s interface name, assigned addresses, gateway, prefix length and whether the gateway is on-link. Do not assume the device is called
eth0; modern VPS images commonly use names such asens3. - Have the provider’s console or out-of-band recovery method available before testing a remote network change.
- Record the current state so you can undo a temporary change:
ip -br link
ip -br address
ip route show
ip rule show
The commands in this article alter the running kernel state. They are useful for testing and emergency repair, but they do not by themselves create a durable configuration for every Linux distribution.
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Inspect interfaces and addresses
Get a compact inventory
The brief forms are convenient on a VPS because they put one link or address per line:
ip -br link
ip -br address
A typical result shows a device name, its administrative and operational state, and its hardware address. The address output lists IPv4 and IPv6 prefixes attached to each device. For full details, use:
ip link show
ip address show
Look for the provider-facing interface, loopback (lo), and any virtual interfaces created by containers or VPN software. The flags and state distinguish an interface that is administratively down from one that is up but has no carrier or peer.
Bring a link up or down
Link state and addressing are separate operations. To activate a device temporarily:
sudo ip link set ens3 up
Replace ens3 with the actual device name. To disable it:
sudo ip link set ens3 down
Bringing a link up does not assign an address or install a route. Conversely, deleting an address does not necessarily bring the device down. The ip-link(8) manual documents additional link attributes, including MTU and creation, deletion and modification of virtual devices.
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Add, remove and inspect IP addresses
Assign an IPv4 address temporarily
sudo ip address add 192.0.2.10/24 dev ens3
ip address show dev ens3
The prefix length is part of the configuration. /24 means a 255.255.255.0 network; it is not interchangeable with a host route such as /32. Use the prefix supplied by your VPS provider. Documentation examples often use the reserved TEST-NET-1 address 192.0.2.10/24; do not use that address on the public Internet.
Remove an address
sudo ip address del 192.0.2.10/24 dev ens3
Specify the same prefix and device used when adding it. To remove all addresses of a family from a device, inspect carefully first; broad deletion can disconnect the VPS.
IPv6 addresses
The same subcommand handles IPv6:
sudo ip -6 address add 2001:db8:1234::10/64 dev ens3
ip -6 address show dev ens3
IPv6 commonly has link-local addresses beginning with fe80::. They are required for neighbor discovery and are scoped to a link; do not treat them as globally routable addresses. Use ip -6 route show and ip -6 route get 2001:db8::1 when diagnosing IPv6 rather than relying on IPv4 output.
Inspect and change routes
Read the current routing table
ip route show
ip route show table main
ip -6 route show
Normal routes are inserted into the main table (ID 254) unless another table is specified. A connected route is usually created when an address is assigned. A default route, written as default via GATEWAY dev DEVICE, handles destinations that have no more-specific match.
Add or replace a route
sudo ip route replace 198.51.100.0/24 via 192.0.2.1 dev ens3
ip route show 198.51.100.0/24
replace is idempotent: it creates the route when absent and updates it when present. That makes it safer in scripts than an unconditional add, which fails if an identical route already exists. The example uses reserved TEST-NET-2 addresses and is illustrative only.
To install a default gateway temporarily:
sudo ip route replace default via 192.0.2.1 dev ens3
Some providers require the gateway to be reachable through a connected prefix; others use a host route or special on-link arrangement. Follow the provider’s documented topology. Installing a gateway that is not reachable at layer 2 can leave the table looking correct while packets never leave the VPS.
Delete a route
sudo ip route del 198.51.100.0/24 via 192.0.2.1 dev ens3
Copy the route’s attributes from ip route show when deleting. Removing the default route on a remote VPS will usually terminate new connections.
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Ask the kernel which path it will use
ip route get 1.1.1.1
ip route get 8.8.8.8 from 192.0.2.10
ip -6 route get 2001:4860:4860::8888
ip route get performs a lookup using the kernel’s routing rules and reports the selected device, source address and next hop. It is more useful than merely reading a table when multiple routes, rules or source addresses are present. The lookup does not send a packet and therefore cannot prove that the remote host, firewall or service is reachable.
Use policy routing for multiple paths
Standard routing consults the main table and chooses the longest matching prefix, then the route metric when applicable. Policy routing is appropriate when that is insufficient—for example, two uplinks, source-specific egress, a VPN that should carry only selected traffic, or separated tenant paths.
Understand the default rule chain
ip rule show
At startup Linux installs three default rules:
| Priority | Table | Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| 0 | local (255) |
Routes to local addresses, broadcast and local host destinations |
| 32766 | main (254) |
Normal administrator-managed routes |
| 32767 | default (253) |
Fallback table, normally empty |
Rules are processed in ascending priority order; a lower numeric value runs first. A custom rule that accidentally precedes the local rule can produce surprising behavior, so leave the local rule intact and choose explicit priorities for custom entries.
Build a source-specific table
The following pattern creates a named table for a second provider-facing interface and sends traffic sourced from its address through that interface:
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sudo sh -c 'echo "100 isp2" >> /etc/iproute2/rt_tables'
sudo ip route add 203.0.113.0/24 dev ens4 src 203.0.113.10 table isp2
sudo ip route add default via 203.0.113.1 dev ens4 table isp2
sudo ip rule add from 203.0.113.10/32 priority 100 table isp2
ip rule show
ip route show table isp2
ip route get 8.8.8.8 from 203.0.113.10
The network and addresses above use reserved TEST-NET-3 values. Substitute the real prefix, source address, gateway and device supplied for your VPS. The table needs a connected route and a default route; without the connected route, the gateway may not be considered reachable. In more complex designs, selectors can match source or destination prefixes, incoming or outgoing interfaces, firewall marks, UID ranges, protocols and ports.
Remove a policy rule safely
sudo ip rule del from 203.0.113.10/32 priority 100 table isp2
sudo ip route flush table isp2
Verify the exact selector and priority before deleting. A rule with a different priority or mask is a different object. Flush only a dedicated custom table, never the main table, unless you have console access and a recovery plan.
Make a configuration persistent
Runtime changes disappear when the VPS reboots, when an interface is recreated, or when a network service reloads its own configuration. iproute2 manuals describe kernel operations; they do not prescribe one persistence mechanism for every distribution or provider.
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After interactive testing, translate the working state into the mechanism used by the image:
- NetworkManager connection profiles, where NetworkManager manages the interface
- systemd-networkd unit files, where networkd owns links and routes
- Distribution-specific interface configuration, such as the files or declarative system used by that release
- The VPS provider’s metadata or startup configuration when the provider regenerates networking at boot
Do not run an ad-hoc boot script in parallel with a network manager that will overwrite it. Define addresses, gateways, route metrics, policy tables and rules in one owner’s configuration, then reload or reboot during a maintenance window. Confirm persistence by checking the state after a controlled restart.
Remove temporary addresses and routes that were only needed for a maintenance window. Leaving an extra default route or address can change source-address selection and cause asymmetric paths.
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Link and counters
ip -s link show dev ens3
Packet and error counters help distinguish a device problem from a routing problem. If the interface is down, activate it first and check provider-side status. Rising transmit errors, drops or carrier problems point to a lower layer than the routing table.
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ip address show dev ens3
ip -6 address show dev ens3
Confirm that the expected address and prefix are present on the intended device. An address on the wrong interface can make a route appear valid while replies leave through an unintended path.
Routes and rules
ip route show table main
ip rule show
ip route get DESTINATION
Replace DESTINATION with a real address. Check the selected source, interface, gateway, table and rule priority. For policy routing, repeat the lookup with from SOURCE; an unqualified lookup may follow a different rule path.
Neighbor resolution
ip neigh show dev ens3
ip -6 neigh show dev ens3
An INCOMPLETE or failed neighbor entry indicates that the VPS cannot resolve the next hop at layer 2. Check the gateway, prefix, virtual-network requirements and provider configuration before changing application settings. A stale entry can be removed with sudo ip neigh del ADDRESS dev ens3, but do so only when you understand why it is stale.
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Listening services and sockets
ss -lntup
ss -ntup
If the route and neighbor state are correct but a port is unreachable, confirm that a process is listening on the expected address and family. Then inspect host and provider firewalls. A service bound only to 127.0.0.1 will not accept connections arriving on the VPS address; a service bound only to IPv4 will not answer IPv6 clients.
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Advanced objects you may encounter
Network namespaces
Namespaces provide isolated interfaces, addresses, routes and rules. They are useful for container networking and controlled tests. List existing namespaces with:
ip netns list
Commands can be run inside a namespace with ip netns exec NAME COMMAND. A route visible in one namespace is not automatically visible in another, so always state which namespace you are inspecting.
Virtual links and tunnels
iproute2 can create and configure virtual Ethernet pairs, bridges, VLANs, bonds and tunnel devices. The exact syntax depends on the link type. Inspect the resulting object with ip link show, assign addresses with ip address, and add routes only after both tunnel endpoints and link state are verified. Encapsulation reduces effective MTU; test packet sizes and account for that overhead in the persistent configuration.
Use idempotent commands in automation
Scripts should be safe to run more than once and should verify assumptions before making destructive changes. Prefer ip route replace for managed routes, explicit table names for policy routing, and a check that the target device exists:
DEV=ens3
ip link show dev "$DEV" >/dev/null || { echo "missing device: $DEV"; exit 1; }
sudo ip link set "$DEV" up
sudo ip route replace 198.51.100.0/24 via 192.0.2.1 dev "$DEV"
ip route get 198.51.100.10
For addresses, test whether the exact prefix is already present before adding it, or use the configuration system that owns the interface. Log the before-and-after output, and include a rollback command for every temporary change.
Quick Recap
A safe end-to-end workflow
- Identify the device. Run
ip -br linkand confirm the provider-facing name. - Record the baseline. Save
ip -br address,ip route showandip rule show. - Change link state only if needed. Use
sudo ip link set DEVICE up. - Assign the address. Add the provider-approved IPv4 or IPv6 prefix with
ip address add ... dev DEVICE. - Install or replace routes. Use the correct gateway, device and table; avoid deleting the existing default route until the replacement is verified.
- Test the kernel decision. Run
ip route get DESTINATION, and includefrom SOURCEfor source-based designs. - Check neighbors and sockets. Use
ip neighandssto separate next-hop failure from an application or firewall failure. - Persist the result. Encode the tested state in the distribution/provider network manager rather than relying on the interactive commands.
- Re-test after reload or reboot. Confirm addresses, rules, routes, neighbor resolution and service reachability from a separate connection.
Common mistakes and recovery
| Symptom | Likely layer | Action |
|---|---|---|
| SSH stops responding immediately after a change | Link, address or default route | Use the existing session or provider console; restore the recorded device state and route before further testing. |
Address appears in ip address, but Internet traffic fails |
Route or gateway | Run ip route get, verify the connected prefix and inspect the neighbor entry for the gateway. |
| Only traffic from one source address fails | Policy rule or asymmetric return path | Run a lookup with from SOURCE; inspect rule priority and the source-specific table. |
| Route works until reboot | Persistence | Move the tested settings into the active distribution/provider network manager. |
| Port is unreachable although the route is correct | Service or firewall | Check ss -lntup, bind addresses, host firewall rules and provider filtering. |
| IPv6 fails while IPv4 works | IPv6 address, route or neighbor discovery | Use the IPv6 forms of ip address, ip route and ip neigh; verify a usable IPv6 default route and service binding. |
Key distinctions to remember
- Temporary versus persistent: an
ipcommand changes the running kernel; your network manager must recreate it at boot. - Main-table routing versus policy routing: start with the main table; add rules and named tables only when destination-only routing cannot express the design.
- IPv4 versus IPv6: use family-specific inspection and remember that IPv6 link-local addresses and neighbor discovery are normal, not errors.
- One interface versus several: multiple uplinks require deliberate source selection, return-path symmetry and, often, policy rules.
- Inspection versus proof: a table dump shows configuration;
ip route getshows the selected path, whileip neigh, counters andssexplain whether the path can actually deliver traffic.
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