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The reliable way to reduce drift and noise is to diagnose the error pattern before changing software. Record the sensor with a stable input, repeat a controlled load and unload sequence, and log temperature, humidity, mounting, cable movement and power-up time. Then make the physical setup repeatable, condition and calibrate the exact sensor at its operating temperature, characterize repeatable temperature or load-history effects, and only then apply compensation or filtering. Drift, hysteresis, creep and random noise have different causes; a filter that makes a trace look smoother can also hide a real event or delay the response.
Start by separating drift, noise, hysteresis and creep
A flexible sensor measurement includes the sensing element, its attachment, fixture, wiring, electronics, environment and loading history. A slowly moving baseline is not the same problem as sample-to-sample jitter, and neither is the same as a different output during loading and unloading.
| Observed behavior | What it means | First checks |
|---|---|---|
| Baseline moves slowly while the input is held constant | Drift: a change in sensor or measurement-system characteristics not explained by the measurand | Temperature, humidity, warm-up time, sustained load, mounting, aging and material changes |
| Adjacent samples jump around a stable average | Random or electrical noise | Power and grounding, cable motion, electromagnetic interference, sampling and bandwidth |
| The same input gives one value while loading and another while unloading | Hysteresis caused by loading history | Repeat a defined load/release cycle and compare the two paths |
| The reading changes after a constant load is applied | Creep or recovery in the sensor, carrier, adhesive, fixture or measured member | Hold time, preload, attachment materials and prior cycles |
| A jump occurs when a cable or fixture is touched | Mechanical strain transfer, intermittent connection or triboelectric/electrical pickup | Reroute and secure cables; inspect connectors and strain relief |
IEEE 2700-2017 provides a general framework for sensor-performance terms, units, conditions and limits. Its listed sensor types do not include flexible strain or force sensors, so use it for terminology rather than as a flexible-sensor test recipe.
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Run a diagnostic baseline before changing the algorithm
The goal is to learn which variables move the output. Do not begin by selecting a moving average or high-pass filter; that can conceal the mechanism you need to fix.
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- Define a stable input. Clamp a strain specimen without changing its intended strain, or apply a force with a fixture that does not relax. Record the raw sensor output at a known sampling rate.
- Log time and conditions. Record temperature and humidity near the sensor, supply voltage, amplifier settings, sensor orientation, attachment method, cable position and the time since power-up. Note every touch, movement and load change.
- Hold long enough to expose slow behavior. Choose a hold period appropriate to the application. A short capture can mistake warm-up or creep for random noise.
- Repeat a controlled loading sequence. Apply the same levels in the same order, include unloading, and record the loading rate and dwell time. Repeat enough cycles to see whether the curve changes with history.
- Change one factor deliberately. For example, repeat at two temperatures, with and without a sustained preload, or with a secured versus moving cable. A correlation is useful only when the input itself was controlled.
- Keep raw data. Save unfiltered samples and the conditions alongside any processed output. You need the raw trace to distinguish a real response from an artifact introduced by filtering.
This workflow does not assume one cause dominates every flexible sensor. It creates evidence for choosing the next physical or analytical change.
Make the physical measurement repeatable
Control the fixture and attachment
Use the same sensor orientation, contact area, adhesive or carrier, preload, alignment and loading rate for every calibration and test. Mark the sensor and fixture so that it can be reinstalled in the same position. Flexible materials can distribute strain differently when bent, wrinkled or bonded with a different thickness of adhesive.
Document the parts between the sensing element and the target structure. The NIST-hosted strain-measurement handbook notes that creep can occur between a gage and its carrier and between the carrier and the measured member. That means an adhesive layer, carrier film or compliant fixture can become part of the time response.
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Prevent cables from becoming force paths
Route the cable so it cannot pull, twist or bend the sensor. Add strain relief to the stationary side, keep the route fixed, and avoid letting a connector hang from the sensing area. If touching or moving the cable changes the reading, treat that as a setup fault until a controlled test proves it is electrical pickup rather than mechanical strain transfer.
Define the environment
Shield the setup from drafts, radiant heat, condensation and accidental contact. Record humidity as well as temperature when the sensing material, adhesive or carrier can absorb moisture. A controlled enclosure is useful only if the sensor is allowed to reach the enclosure’s condition before calibration and measurement.
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Condition and calibrate at the intended operating temperature
Many flexible sensors change response during their first loading cycles. Follow the exact manufacturer’s conditioning procedure instead of assuming that a generic number of cycles applies. For the FlexiForce force-sensor family, the manufacturer manual describes exercising or conditioning the sensor to reduce response changes from repeated loading and unloading. The same manual states: “To ensure accuracy, calibrate the sensor at the temperature at which it will be used.” Read the instructions for the exact sensor version in your assembly at the FlexiForce manual.
- Assemble the sensor exactly as it will be used, including the contact surface, preload and cable routing.
- Let the assembly reach the intended operating temperature before collecting calibration points.
- Exercise or condition it according to the product documentation, recording the cycle count and load range.
- Apply known reference inputs across the working range in the same direction and rate used in operation.
- Fit the calibration relationship to the raw output, and retain the temperature and loading-history conditions with the calibration record.
- Verify the calibration on separate cycles rather than judging it from the points used to fit the curve.
Calibration removes a known relationship between output and input; it does not automatically remove drift caused by a later temperature change, adhesive creep, aging or a different mounting arrangement.
Use a defined test for stretchable resistive strain sensors
IEC 63203-401-1:2023 specifies a tensile-strain measurement method for stretchable resistive strain sensors. The edition was published on 2023-10-09 and the IEC page lists a stability date of 2028. It includes procedures for gauge factor, linearity, response characteristics and hysteresis. It is not a method for evaluating material properties such as elastic modulus, elastic limit or Poisson’s ratio.
What to measure
- Gauge factor: the sensitivity of resistance change to applied strain under the stated test conditions.
- Linearity: how closely the output follows the chosen reference relationship over the specified range.
- Response characteristics: how quickly and consistently output follows a changing strain.
- Hysteresis: the difference between output on loading and unloading at the same strain.
How the hysteresis cycle reveals history effects
Use a tensile test arrangement that records resistance and strain together. Stretch to a defined target strain, then release toward the initial state while continuing to record both quantities. State the strain range, loading rate, dwell times, number of cycles, temperature and the hysteresis definition used in your report. A single curve without those conditions cannot be compared fairly with another sensor or fixture.
For a force sensor or another mechanism outside this IEC scope, use the equivalent idea—a repeatable load and release protocol—but do not label the result as an IEC 63203-401-1 measurement.
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Characterize temperature and humidity before applying compensation
Temperature can change output while the target force or strain remains constant. Calibrate at the use temperature when the product documentation requires it, and test across the actual operating range if the environment varies. A temperature coefficient measured on one mounting stack is not automatically valid after changing the adhesive, carrier or fixture.
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- Choose several temperatures or humidity conditions that cover real operation.
- At each condition, wait for the sensor and fixture to equilibrate, then apply the same reference input.
- Record the output at zero and at representative nonzero inputs.
- Fit a correction only if the relationship is repeatable and does not remove the measurand.
- Validate the correction on a different day or cycle, including transitions between conditions.
If humidity changes track the output but are not measured, adding a temperature-only correction can make results worse. Measure the environmental variable that actually explains the residual.
Handle creep, recovery and hysteresis as load-history effects
When a reading changes during a constant load, compare the sensor with the fixture and attachment. A carrier or adhesive can creep even if the sensing material is stable. When the load is removed, recovery may be incomplete or may take a different time than the loading phase.
Design a history-aware test
- Record the initial state before preload.
- Apply preload and hold it for a stated time.
- Apply the measurement load using a stated rate.
- Hold, unload and observe recovery for a stated period.
- Repeat the sequence after different prior loads to see whether the output depends on history.
If the application permits, define an operating protocol that includes a warm-up or conditioning sequence and a fixed preload. If it does not, model the history dependence and report the resulting uncertainty rather than presenting one static calibration as universal.
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Reduce electrical noise without erasing the signal
Check the signal chain first
- Use a stable, adequately decoupled supply and verify that supply ripple is not visible in the sensor trace.
- Keep high-impedance sensor leads short where practical, use appropriate shielding and provide a deliberate ground reference.
- Separate sensor wiring from motors, switching regulators, radio transmitters and mains cables.
- Secure connectors and strain-relieve leads so vibration cannot create intermittent resistance changes.
- Confirm that the amplifier and analogue-to-digital converter have sufficient resolution and input range without clipping.
- Sample fast enough to capture the fastest real event, while recording the chosen analogue or digital bandwidth.
These checks address noise entering through power, wiring, mechanics or conversion. They cannot compensate for a sensor that is genuinely changing because of temperature or creep.
Choose filtering as a bandwidth decision
First define the fastest change that must remain visible and the maximum acceptable delay. Then compare the raw signal with candidate filters on recorded events, not only on a quiet baseline. A longer moving average suppresses more high-frequency variation but increases delay and can attenuate short peaks. A low-pass filter can smooth jitter while hiding a rapid force change; a high-pass filter can remove baseline drift while also discarding slow real strain.
There is no source-backed universal cutoff frequency, window length or percentage improvement for flexible sensors. Report the filter type, parameters, sampling rate, resulting delay and the signal features that remain detectable. Keep an unfiltered channel for diagnosis when storage allows.
Apply compensation only after proving the relationship
Compensation is justified when a disturbance is measured and its effect is repeatable over the intended range. For example, a temperature term may be appropriate if repeated tests show the same output shift at a fixed reference load. A load-history term may be appropriate when the operating sequence is controlled.
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- Collect paired reference and sensor data over the real temperature, humidity, load and time ranges.
- Separate fitting data from validation data by cycle, day or condition.
- Fit the simplest model that describes the repeatable effect.
- Check residuals for trends with time, load direction, temperature and prior cycles.
- Test the model on an independent reference or repeated sequence.
- Reject the correction if it removes a known change in the measurand or fails outside the fitted conditions.
Store calibration coefficients with their valid temperature range, mounting configuration, conditioning state, firmware version and date. Recalibrate when any of those conditions changes materially.
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Validate that a change actually improved the measurement
| Metric or check | How to evaluate it | What a useful result tells you |
|---|---|---|
| Baseline stability | Hold a stable input and calculate the time trend before and after the change | Whether slow drift decreased under the same conditions |
| Repeatability | Repeat identical load cycles and compare outputs at each level | Whether cycle-to-cycle variation changed |
| Hysteresis | Compare loading and unloading outputs at matched inputs | Whether history dependence remains |
| Response time | Apply a defined step or ramp and measure delay and settling | Whether filtering or compensation removed needed dynamics |
| Environmental sensitivity | Repeat the baseline while temperature or humidity is controlled and recorded | Whether residual error follows an environmental variable |
| Independent validity | Compare with a calibrated reference or separate measurement method | Whether the correction tracks the measurand rather than merely making the trace smooth |
Use the same fixture, cycle definition and data-processing rules for before-and-after comparisons. Do not claim a percentage reduction unless it was measured for that sensor, setup and test condition; no general improvement percentage applies to all flexible sensors.
Choose and compare flexible sensors on application-relevant evidence
There is no universally best flexible sensor. Compare candidates using a test method that matches the sensing mechanism and the intended environment.
| Comparison axis | Questions to ask | Why it matters |
|---|---|---|
| Sensitivity or gauge factor | What is the measured sensitivity, over what strain or force range, and at what temperature? | A high nominal sensitivity is not useful if the usable range or repeatability is inadequate. |
| Linearity | What reference relationship and fitting range were used? | Linearity outside the tested range is not established. |
| Response characteristics | What loading rate, bandwidth and settling behavior were measured? | The sensor and electronics must preserve the fastest required event. |
| Hysteresis and recovery | Were loading and unloading tested with a defined cycle? | History effects can dominate accuracy in repeated motion. |
| Usable strain or force range | What limits apply to continuous, peak and repeated operation? | Operating near a limit can increase nonlinearity, creep or damage. |
| Environment | How do temperature, humidity, flexing and aging affect output? | Environmental drift must be controlled or characterized. |
| Attachment method | What carrier, adhesive, preload and surface preparation are specified? | Mounting is part of the measurement system. |
| Electronics compatibility | What resistance, excitation, input impedance, range and sampling are required? | A suitable sensing element can still perform poorly with an incompatible readout. |
IEC 63203-401-1:2023 explicitly covers gauge factor, linearity, response characteristics and hysteresis for stretchable resistive strain sensors. Use its scope and procedure when comparing sensors in that category, and document different methods for force sensors or other mechanisms.
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The baseline drifts after power-up
- Repeat the test while logging warm-up time and temperature.
- Allow the electronics and sensor assembly to stabilize before calibration.
- Check whether the drift changes after conditioning cycles.
- If it remains, separate electronic offset drift from mechanical creep by monitoring a stable electrical reference and the loaded fixture independently.
The reading changes when the sensor is touched
- Repeat with the cable secured and the contact area shielded from accidental force.
- Inspect strain relief, connectors and shielding.
- Determine whether the change follows mechanical contact, body capacitance, electromagnetic pickup or temperature from the touch.
Loading and unloading disagree
- Plot both paths against the applied input.
- Repeat at different rates and dwell times.
- Condition the sensor if its documentation calls for it.
- Report hysteresis and recovery rather than hiding the difference with a single averaged calibration.
The signal is smooth but real events are missing
- Compare the filtered trace with raw samples.
- Reduce the filter window or raise the cutoff only enough to retain the required event.
- Measure delay and amplitude attenuation on a known step or pulse.
A correction works in the lab but fails in use
- Compare temperature, humidity, mounting, preload, loading rate and prior cycles between the two settings.
- Check whether the model was fitted outside the field range.
- Recalibrate on the installed assembly and validate on independent cycles.
Document the measurement so it can be reproduced
A useful record identifies the exact sensor version, attachment materials, fixture geometry, orientation, preload, cable route, electronics, excitation, sampling rate, filter, conditioning sequence, calibration temperature, environmental range, load sequence, hysteresis definition and validation result. Include raw data and the date of every calibration.
The IEEE framework can help organize parameter names and units, while the IEC method supplies a specific tensile-strain procedure for stretchable resistive sensors. The NIST handbook provides background on strain-gage temperature compensation and installation-related creep. None of these sources makes one correction universal; the validity of a result is bounded by the sensor mechanism and conditions under which it was measured.
Quick Recap
A practical decision sequence
- Classify the trace: drift, random noise, hysteresis, creep, recovery or a combination.
- Freeze the mechanics: standardize fixture, attachment, orientation, preload and cable routing.
- Control the environment: measure temperature and humidity and allow equilibration.
- Condition and calibrate: follow the exact product manual at the intended operating temperature.
- Characterize: use repeatable load/unload cycles and, for applicable stretchable resistive strain sensors, the IEC 63203-401-1:2023 method.
- Correct only repeatable effects: validate temperature or history compensation against independent data.
- Filter to the required bandwidth: quantify delay and lost signal, and retain raw data.
- Re-test after every change: use the same conditions so an apparent improvement is measurable and reproducible.
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