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Plan a co-packaged optics (CPO) switch as a tightly coupled electrical, optical and thermal system. CPO shortens the electrical path between the switching ASIC and optical engines, which can reduce link power, but it also concentrates several heat sources in one package. The practical workflow is to define a consistent system boundary, build typical and worst-case power budgets, select a cooling architecture that fits the package and facility, then validate the complete assembly under traffic and ambient extremes.
There is no universal CPO wattage, temperature setpoint or cooling method. Published numbers apply to particular designs and comparison boundaries. Use them to size and challenge a design, not as a substitute for switch- and optical-engine vendor limits.
What CPO changes—and what it does not
In a conventional switch, optical transceivers are distributed across front-panel cages and connect to the switch ASIC through relatively long high-speed electrical traces and host SerDes links. CPO places optical engines beside, or in the same package area as, the ASIC. The shorter electrical distance can reduce signal-loss compensation and the associated energy.
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“Co-packaged engines will require some sort of thermal management, either a conduction path to remove heat or to isolate the engine from other heat-generating components.”
Optical Internetworking Forum, OIF-Co-Packaging-FD-01.0, section 7.4.1 (2020)
The OIF framework discusses the requirement in the context of system integration; it is not a product specification or a universal temperature limit. Read the complete framework at OIF-Co-Packaging-FD-01.0.
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Power comparisons become misleading when one design is reported at the optical module and another at the wall plug. Write the boundary at the top of the design document and keep it unchanged in every comparison. At minimum, identify whether the figure includes the host SerDes, optical engines, laser sources, fans or pumps, power supplies, voltage-conversion losses and rack or facility cooling overhead.
Record the configuration
- Switch bandwidth, ASIC or NPU model and number of ASICs.
- Number and type of optical engines, lanes, lasers and wavelength-control electronics.
- Traffic pattern, port utilization and the distinction between representative and maximum traffic.
- Airflow direction, fan redundancy, inlet-temperature range and allowable altitude.
- Power-feed redundancy, conversion stages and whether auxiliary shelves are included.
- Facility conditions: chilled-water temperature, dry-cooler capability, room air temperature, humidity and available rack heat-rejection capacity.
Separate three ledgers: power inside the switch package, power at the equipment input, and facility energy required to reject that heat. A design can improve the first while adding pumps, heat exchangers or controls in the latter two.
Build typical and worst-case power and heat budgets
Request maximum and representative power for every heat source. Include the ASIC, each optical engine, laser sources, retimers or control devices, fans or pumps and every power-conversion stage. Create at least two scenarios: normal operation at the expected traffic mix and a worst case combining maximum traffic, maximum configured optics, high inlet temperature and the permitted voltage range.
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For a first-order thermal budget, treat consumed electrical power as heat that must eventually be rejected. If a component receives 600 W and has no significant stored-energy mechanism, the cooling system should be sized for approximately 600 W of heat from that component, plus the rest of the assembly. State explicitly whether your number is package-only, switch-input or facility-inclusive.
Published reference values
The OIF framework gives a representative 12.8 Tb/s, 1RU switch example. Its values illustrate accounting, not a CPO product rating:
| Item | Published value | Qualification |
|---|---|---|
| NPU power | 432 W | Representative 12.8 Tb/s 1RU switch example in the OIF 2020 framework |
| 32 optical ports | 384 W | 32 400G QSFP56-DD ports at 12 W each in the same example |
| Total consumption | 900 W typical; 1,500 W worst case | Includes fans, power supplies and typical optical dissipation for that described switch |
Do not label the 900 W or 1,500 W figures as CPO limits: the example is a representative pluggable 1RU system. Use the source table to check whether your own budget has omitted a category. The full framework is available from the Optical Internetworking Forum.
Keep comparison scope visible
A 2026 analysis by Alan F. Evans reports 23% and 67% CPO optical-transceiver energy-efficiency improvement relative to LPO and DSP transceivers, respectively. When host SerDes is included, the reported improvements are 44% and 69%. The same paper estimates switch-power reductions of 18% versus LPO links and 36% versus DSP links. These percentages depend on the components, technology generation and boundary selected by the paper.
Evans warns that “Reported power consumption savings vary greatly and there is ambiguity about what is included and what generation of technology is used.” Treat the figures as bounded results for the definitions in the Journal of Lightwave Technology article, not as guaranteed savings for an unspecified switch. When making your own table, show separate columns for optical-transceiver power, host-SerDes power, switch power and total equipment input.
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Translate watts into cooling requirements
Cooling selection starts with heat-removal capacity, then checks temperature, reliability and service constraints. Sum the maximum heat from the ASIC, optics, lasers, memory, regulators and conversion losses. Add fan or pump electrical power because it also becomes heat somewhere in the system. Apply the vendor’s derating rules at the highest inlet or coolant temperature, rather than sizing only for a room-average condition.
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Air-side calculation
For air cooling, the useful capacity depends on airflow, air density, specific heat and allowable air-temperature rise. Your thermal model should use the manufacturer’s actual fan curve and account for filter loading, cable obstruction, altitude and fan-failure states. A high airflow number without the associated pressure and temperature-rise conditions is not a capacity rating.
Liquid-side calculation
For liquid cooling, capacity depends on coolant flow, specific heat, inlet temperature and permitted coolant rise. Record cold-plate pressure drop, pump operating points, quick-disconnect losses, leak detection and the heat exchanger’s approach temperature. Determine whether the facility can absorb the rejected heat at the required supply temperature; a cold plate does not eliminate a data-center heat-rejection requirement.
Design for operating envelopes, not a single point
- Normal traffic at the expected inlet or coolant temperature.
- Maximum traffic with every optical engine active.
- High ambient or warm coolant at the facility design limit.
- Fan, pump, power-feed or cooling-loop redundancy states.
- Startup, restart and control-transient conditions.
Set alarms below the vendor’s maximum ratings and leave control margin for sensor error, fouling and aging. The reviewed sources do not establish a universal CPO junction-temperature setpoint; that value must come from the component and package suppliers.
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Four architectures commonly appear in CPO discussions. Their suitability depends on heat density, service model and facility readiness, not on a single efficiency claim.
| Architecture | Strengths | Risks and dependencies | Design implications |
|---|---|---|---|
| Air cooling | Familiar infrastructure, relatively low cost and compatibility with hot-swappable fan arrays | Lower cooling efficiency, acoustic output and limited capacity as local heat flux rises | Requires careful heatsink, airflow-path and obstruction design; validate fan-failure operation |
| Closed-loop liquid | Higher heat-removal capacity than air and quieter operation | Pump reliability, seals, controls and added cost; the OIF framework described data-center deployment as limited when written | Needs cold plates, coolant monitoring, a heat exchanger or radiator and service procedures |
| Open-loop liquid | Greater capacity in the OIF comparison | External flowing-liquid supply, heat exchanger and facility dependency; one supply failure can affect multiple units | Requires plumbing, isolation, leak detection, water-quality control and coordinated maintenance |
| Immersion | Potentially high capacity and equipment density | Fluid and pump reliability, hermeticity for optics and fiber connectors, major redesign and cost | Requires fluid compatibility qualification, tank or bath redesign, service tooling and a new deployment model |
These descriptions are the baseline comparison in the OIF framework, not a current vendor survey or an endorsement. Evaluate each option against the following gates:
- Capacity: Can it remove the worst-case heat with margin at the facility’s hottest condition?
- Temperature: Do ASIC, optical-chip, laser and connector limits remain satisfied, including gradients and transients?
- Reliability: What happens after a fan, pump, valve, power feed or facility loop failure?
- Infrastructure: Are plumbing, heat exchangers, leak detection, power and controls available at the rack?
- Serviceability: Can technicians replace a switch without draining a loop or disturbing neighboring units?
- Noise and density: Are acoustic and rack-density targets compatible with the chosen method?
- Cost and maturity: Include capital equipment, operating energy, spares, training and redesign.
Control thermal coupling inside the package
Sharing package area makes the ASIC and optical engines thermal neighbors. Heat flowing through a common substrate, lid or heatsink can raise optical-chip temperature even when the optical engine is not the largest electrical load. Conversely, a hot ASIC can create a local gradient that affects laser stability or optical performance.
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An IEEE Photonics Technology Council presentation identifies several design levers: separate heat paths for ASIC and optics, heatsinks with more surface area, directed airflow, suitable thermal-interface materials and thermally conductive package vias. The correct combination depends on package geometry, component limits and the system cooler; the presentation does not validate one switch design. Review the technical discussion in the IEEE Photonics Technology Council presentation.
What to model
- Steady-state junction, case and optical-chip temperatures for every heat source.
- Thermal resistance and capacitance from each die to the cooler and between neighboring dies.
- Temperature gradients across laser and optical-engine regions.
- Interface-material thickness, compression, pump-out and aging effects.
- Transient response during traffic steps, fan-speed changes and cooling-loop disturbances.
Do not use one measured ASIC temperature as proof that every optical engine is safe. Place sensors at the package hot spots and correlate them with calibrated thermal simulations and vendor limits.
Use laboratory results correctly
A 2024 IEEE conference paper reports a liquid-cooled CPO design tested at 290 W input power. In that experiment, the ASIC junction reached 51 °C, optical-chip temperatures were 28 °C to 29 °C, and the maximum difference among the optical chips was 0.6 °C. Those are results for that paper’s package, cooler, test conditions and instrumentation—not standard targets for every CPO switch.
Use the result as a validation pattern: identify input power, coolant conditions, sensor locations, thermal gradients and workload before comparing it with your design. The paper is available at IEEE Xplore.
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A vendor discussion should produce numbers and interfaces that can be inserted into your model. Ask the switch, ASIC-package and optical-engine suppliers for:
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- Power by operating mode, lane rate, traffic level and laser state, including tolerance and maximum values.
- Maximum rated junction, case and optical temperatures, plus derating curves and shutdown behavior.
- Heat-source locations, thermal-resistance data and allowable thermal gradients between ASIC and optics.
- Cold-plate or heatsink contact requirements, flatness, mounting force and thermal-interface-material specification.
- Liquid type, allowable inlet temperature, flow range, pressure drop, cleanliness and leak-test requirements.
- Airflow direction, minimum flow, pressure curve and fan-failure behavior if air cooled.
- Optical penalties or protection behavior during temperature excursions, pump loss and fan-speed reduction.
- Connector, fiber and hermeticity limits for any immersion or liquid-adjacent design.
- Telemetry points, alarm thresholds, firmware controls and safe-state behavior.
If a supplier cannot provide a value, mark it as an open project input and assign a validation test. Do not silently substitute a number from another package or from a laboratory demonstration.
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Validate the complete switch and facility envelope
- Instrument the assembly. Measure equipment-input power, ASIC and optical temperatures, inlet and exhaust air or coolant temperatures, flow, pressure, fan or pump power and ambient conditions.
- Establish a baseline. Run representative traffic with the normal redundancy state and record stabilized temperatures and control-loop behavior.
- Apply worst-case load. Enable the maximum optical configuration and traffic pattern while operating at the highest permitted inlet or coolant temperature.
- Exercise transients. Step traffic, change fan or pump speed, and cycle optical engines to expose thermal time constants and control overshoot.
- Test faults. Simulate a failed fan, pump, power feed, sensor and facility cooling path. Verify alarms, throttling and orderly shutdown.
- Check rack interactions. Repeat with neighboring equipment, cable fill and realistic airflow or plumbing restrictions.
- Compare model and measurement. Explain every discrepancy, update material and interface assumptions, and rerun the hot-spot cases.
- Document acceptance limits. Record measured margins to each vendor rating, not merely pass or fail at one room condition.
Facility acceptance should include the heat exchanger, secondary loop, controls and redundancy—not just the switch cold plate. A switch that survives a bench test can still exceed rack or room limits when several units share a coolant loop.
Common planning failures and how to correct them
Comparing optical modules only
Symptom: CPO appears to save a large percentage, but rack power barely changes. Correction: Add host SerDes, conversion losses, fans or pumps and the same switch configuration to both alternatives.
Using a typical value for protection sizing
Symptom: Temperatures rise during maximum traffic or hot-room operation. Correction: Maintain separate typical and worst-case budgets and size capacity for the latter with explicit margin.
Assuming a published temperature is a limit
Symptom: A design is declared safe because it matches a conference-paper temperature. Correction: Use the paper as evidence of one experiment and obtain rated limits and derating behavior from the actual suppliers.
Ignoring facility dependencies
Symptom: A liquid design meets package temperatures but cannot maintain flow or heat rejection in the intended rack. Correction: Validate pumps, heat exchangers, plumbing, water quality, leak response and maintenance procedures as one system.
Leaving no service or failure state
Symptom: A single pump, fan or sensor fault forces an immediate outage. Correction: Define redundancy, degraded-performance modes, alarms and safe shutdown before selecting the package cooler.
Quick Recap
A practical decision sequence
- Freeze the comparison boundary and configuration.
- Collect component-level typical and maximum power and temperature data.
- Build package, switch-input and facility heat ledgers.
- Model thermal coupling and identify the hottest ASIC and optical regions.
- Screen air, closed-loop liquid, open-loop liquid and immersion against capacity, temperature, reliability, infrastructure and service criteria.
- Select a provisional architecture with measurable margins and a defined failure mode.
- Prototype the package-to-cooler interface and instrument every important heat path.
- Run representative, worst-case, transient and fault tests at facility-relevant conditions.
- Approve deployment only when measured margins and infrastructure dependencies are documented.
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