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Limit an AI agent by enforcing least privilege at runtime: put its process in a real OS, VM, or microVM boundary; expose only the files and destinations required for the task; keep credentials behind a broker; and require approval for actions that exceed the boundary. Prompts, tool descriptions, and file-display filters can guide a cooperative agent, but they cannot stop arbitrary shell code or an integration from reaching the same resources.
The safest design separates a trusted control plane (authentication, approvals, billing, audit, and recovery) from a sandboxed execution plane where model-directed code runs. Treat every shell command, network host, mounted directory, credential, package manager, and MCP server as an explicit capability rather than an implicit default.
What least privilege means for an AI agent
Least privilege is not a sentence in the system prompt. It is a set of enforceable runtime controls that reduce what the agent can read, change, execute, contact, and authenticate to.
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A useful boundary has two complementary parts:
- Sandbox or isolation: defines the technical ceiling: which paths the process can access, whether it can reach the network, and what host resources remain protected.
- Approvals and command policy: decide when an operation needs human review or is rejected, especially when it crosses the sandbox boundary or performs a high-impact action.
Neither replaces the other. A sandbox limits damage if code is malicious or mistaken; approval rules add a decision point for risky actions that are technically possible inside the allowed area. OpenAI’s Codex deployment documentation describes these functions separately, and the same separation is useful in self-hosted systems.
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Keep the control plane outside model-directed execution
Authentication, account and billing operations, approval decisions, audit retention, secret issuance, and emergency shutdown should remain in a trusted harness whenever possible. The agent-facing sandbox should handle bounded work such as inspecting a checkout, running tests, or transforming a supplied dataset. If the model can rewrite the component that decides whether it is allowed to continue, the policy is not an independent control.
Write down the threat model
Assume that instructions can arrive from an untrusted repository, a web page, a dependency, a generated file, or a prompt-injection payload. Decide whether the agent must be protected from:
- Confidential host files and environment variables.
- Accidental or malicious edits to production or personal files.
- Outbound data exfiltration and unauthorized changes to external services.
- Destructive commands, persistence mechanisms, and supply-chain scripts.
- Tools that run outside the sandbox but appear in the agent’s tool list.
The stricter the threat model, the less you should rely on cooperative behavior, natural-language restrictions, or an allowlist that is enforced only by the agent framework.
Begin with a capability inventory
Before choosing a product or configuration, record the smallest capability set the task needs. Ask these questions for one specific job, not for an imagined universal agent:
| Capability | Questions to answer | Least-privilege choice |
|---|---|---|
| Files to read | Which directories and individual files are inputs? Are hidden files, symlinks, Git metadata, or shared stores required? | Expose only those paths, preferably read-only. |
| Files to write | What output must be created, and where will a human review it? | Use a separate output directory or private clone; avoid a live host mount unless immediate edits are intentional. |
| Commands | Which interpreters, compilers, test runners, and package managers are necessary? | Permit the narrowest executable set and require review for destructive or boundary-crossing operations. |
| Network | Which exact hosts and protocols are needed? Is an upload, push, publish, or mutation possible? | Deny egress by default and add named hosts only when required. |
| Credentials | Does the task need authentication, signing, or access to a third-party API? | Use short-lived, destination-scoped credentials through a trusted proxy or broker. |
| Integrations | Where does each MCP server or other tool process run, and what permissions does it inherit? | Inventory the execution location and host permissions separately from the sandbox. |
Record the owner, purpose, expiry or review date, and rollback method for every exception. A capability that cannot be explained in one sentence is usually too broad for the first policy.
Choose a filesystem boundary deliberately
Filesystem exposure is often the largest source of accidental disclosure. Select a mode based on whether the agent needs host files and whether its edits should become live immediately.
Mountless execution
Use a mountless environment when the agent needs no host workspace. The sandbox has its own filesystem, so host files are not exposed through a workspace mount. This is the strongest default for tasks that create a new project, analyze data copied into the environment, or run a self-contained build.
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Read-only reference mount
Mount reference material read-only when the agent must inspect existing files but must not change them. Docker’s sbx create shell reference supports appending :ro to a workspace mount. Read-only applies to writes through that mount; still check whether other shared paths, symlinks, sockets, or tools expose a write route.
Private clone
A private clone is appropriate when the agent needs to edit code but changes should be held for review. Docker documents clone mode as mounting the host repository read-only while work occurs in a private sandbox clone. Fetch or export reviewed changes deliberately rather than allowing every edit to land on the host.
Direct read-write mount
A direct read-write mount is convenient for interactive development, but every edit is visible on the host as it happens. The agent can access all files inside the mounted workspace, including hidden configuration, Git hooks, local credentials accidentally stored there, and executable build scripts. Scope the mount to the smallest directory and do not assume that a project folder contains only source code.
| Mode | Host workspace exposure | Edits visible on host | Best fit |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mountless | None | No | Independent work or analysis of copied inputs |
| Read-only mount | Selected reference path | No writes through the mount | Inspection, testing, and documentation generation |
| Private clone | Repository source is read-only to the sandbox | No; changes remain in the clone until exported | Code changes requiring review before merge |
| Direct read-write mount | All files inside the selected workspace, including hidden files | Yes, immediately | Live development where immediate host changes are an explicit requirement |
Why ignore and display rules are not enough
.gitignore is not a secret-protection mechanism. Docker distinguishes display and search filtering from access control: a file can be omitted from a listing yet still be opened by a file-reading operation. Docker’s documented .agentsignore filtering applies to its filesystem toolset, but shell or another tool that can reach the filesystem may still read a matched path.
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“When you need a real boundary, combine it with permissions that restrict
shell, or run in sandbox mode.” — Docker Docs, “Ignoring files.”
Apply the same reasoning to IDE exclusions, retrieval filters, and prompt instructions. They improve usability and reduce accidental exposure, but they do not constrain an arbitrary process that already has filesystem permission.
Put command-line execution inside a real boundary
Assume a shell can do everything its underlying process can do. It may read paths hidden from a file tool, execute scripts from the workspace, invoke package managers, inspect process information, open sockets, and consume any credential made available to it. A natural-language rule such as “only run tests” is therefore not an enforcement layer.
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Use OS, VM, or microVM enforcement
Run shell-capable work in an isolated operating-system container, VM, or microVM with a restricted filesystem and network policy. Docker describes its Sandboxes as microVM isolation with layers for the hypervisor, network, Docker Engine, workspace, and credential proxy. Its documentation also states that the agent has full privileges inside the VM; isolation from the host is the protection, not an assumption that commands are harmless within the VM.
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Combine command policy with approvals
Use command rules to make common, low-risk inspection operations convenient and to flag operations that deserve review. An internal OpenAI deployment example describes allow rules for common read-only inspection commands and blocking or requiring review for higher-risk commands. That is a deployment example, not a universally safe allowlist: the right set depends on the operating system, repository, tools, and threat model.
Require review for operations such as deleting or overwriting broad paths, changing executable project configuration, installing unknown dependencies, publishing packages, pushing to a remote repository, modifying access controls, or invoking a tool outside the sandbox. Keep the sandbox underneath the policy so a bypassed prompt or tool cannot simply perform the same operation through another route.
Watch for indirect command paths
- A test runner can execute hooks defined in project configuration.
- A package install can run lifecycle scripts and contact additional hosts.
- A build script can start another interpreter or container.
- A shell command can call a network utility even when the network tool is disabled.
- A generated script can read files that the agent interface does not display.
Review executable configuration changes, including Git hooks, build scripts, task-runner files, and package-manager metadata, before running them outside the sandbox.
Deny and narrow outbound network access
Start with no outbound network access unless the task has a documented need. Then add the smallest set of destinations and protocols. An allowed host is an authority, not merely a download location: it may accept uploads, perform mutations, or be used to move data out of the sandbox.
Understand implementation defaults
Docker’s documented local sandbox default blocks outbound TCP, including HTTP, HTTPS, and SSH, unless an explicit rule permits the destination. UDP is disabled by default and ICMP is blocked. Local policy can be customized, while organization-managed rules take precedence. Docker also notes that its default allowed-domain set includes broad wildcards, so inspect the active rules instead of assuming the cleanest interpretation of the word default.
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Anthropic’s documented managed-agent cloud environments provide two examples: limited networking restricts the sandbox to allowed hosts, while unrestricted permits full outbound access except for a general safety blocklist. The documentation says an omitted networking setting in API creation defaults to unrestricted, whereas the Console form starts with Limited selected and no additional hosts. Set the mode explicitly; do not infer it from a product name or interface screenshot. These details apply to that managed environment and not automatically to every product from the same vendor.
Build a host allowlist that reflects operations
For each allowed destination, record its purpose, protocol, port, authentication method, upload capability, and owner. Separate read-only artifact retrieval from destinations that can accept writes. Avoid wildcard domains unless you can explain every matching subdomain and its ownership.
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Account for hosts introduced indirectly by:
- Package managers, registries, mirrors, and language toolchains.
- MCP servers and their remote APIs.
- Source-control fetch, push, and release endpoints.
- Telemetry, error-reporting, update, and license services.
- Redirects, proxy configuration, DNS services, and cloud metadata endpoints.
Prompt injection in untrusted content may try to copy files to an allowed host. Keep sensitive material out of the environment, use destination-scoped credentials, and require approval for shell actions that upload, publish, push, or mutate an external system.
Apply policy to the process that actually connects
A network rule on the sandbox does not automatically govern a host-side integration. Determine whether the request originates from the sandbox process, a host proxy, an MCP server, or a vendor service. Log the process identity, destination, decision, and data-handling purpose for each connection.
Keep valuable credentials out of agent-readable space
Do not put long-lived application secrets in files or environment variables that generated code can read. If a secret is injected directly into the process environment, the agent can print it, copy it into an artifact, or send it to an allowed host.
Prefer a broker or trusted proxy
Keep the real credential in a vault or trusted service. Give the sandbox a narrowly scoped mechanism that can request an operation for an approved destination, with short expiration, audience restrictions, rate limits, and revocation. OpenAI recommends keeping the application API key outside the environment, using a restricted executor key, and using vault-backed secrets with a proxy for approved hosts where feasible. In a self-hosted deployment, the operator must provide the trusted proxy or server.
A proxy can enforce destination and method rules without revealing the underlying secret. It should also produce an audit record and fail closed when the requested host, method, or scope is not approved.
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Handle forwarded signing capability carefully
Docker documents that a host-side credential proxy can inject raw credentials into outbound HTTP headers without placing the values in the VM. That reduces direct secret exposure, but forwarded services require separate analysis. An SSH agent socket can let sandbox processes request signatures even while the private key remains on the host. The key material is isolated; signing capability is still available. Limit which identities can be used, which destinations are reachable, and when approval is required.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.Audit MCP servers and other integrations as separate trust paths
Tools do not necessarily run where the model runs. OpenAI’s security guidance distinguishes executor MCP connections, which originate from the customer’s environment, from remote MCP connections, which originate from OpenAI’s service. Docker warns that local stdio MCP servers run outside its sandbox and may start host processes or host Docker containers with host permissions.
For every integration, document:
- Execution location: sandbox, host, customer cloud, or vendor service.
- Operating-system identity and filesystem paths available to that process.
- Network routes and credentials it can use.
- Whether it can start processes, containers, browsers, or background services.
- Approval behavior, logging, update mechanism, and shutdown procedure.
Do not assume that placing an MCP entry in an agent configuration makes it subject to the sandbox. If a local server must remain on the host, isolate it separately, run it with a dedicated account, restrict its sockets and directories, and audit its child processes.
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- Define the task. List required input paths, output paths, commands, hosts, credentials, and integrations. Remove anything that is merely convenient.
- Separate trust domains. Keep authentication, approvals, secret issuance, audit, and recovery in a harness or service that the model-directed process cannot rewrite.
- Select the filesystem mode. Choose mountless, read-only, private clone, or direct read-write based on the actual workflow. Scope mounts to the smallest directory.
- Deploy shell in isolation. Use an OS, VM, or microVM boundary. Treat shell as arbitrary code, not as a privileged natural-language feature.
- Set network mode explicitly. Begin denied or limited, then add named hosts and required protocols. Review wildcard matches and organization-level overrides.
- Broker credentials. Keep long-lived secrets outside the execution environment. Issue short-lived, destination-scoped access through a trusted proxy where possible.
- Configure approvals. Require review for destructive changes, executable configuration, uploads, pushes, publishing, dependency installation, and boundary-crossing tools.
- Inventory integrations. Verify where every MCP server and helper process runs and what host permissions it inherits.
- Log and test. Capture prompts, approvals, tool calls, command decisions, filesystem denials, network allow/deny events, and credential-proxy requests. Test the controls with hostile repository content and attempted boundary bypasses.
- Review exceptions. Give each exception an owner, reason, expiration, and rollback. Remove it when the task ends.
Vendor examples and their limits
The following implementations illustrate design choices rather than a universal product ranking.
| Implementation | Documented example | Important limit or qualification |
|---|---|---|
| Docker Sandboxes | MicroVM isolation; mountless, read-only, clone, and direct workspace modes; network policy; host-side credential proxy. | The agent has full privileges inside the VM, direct mounts are live read-write, and local stdio MCP servers run outside the VM. |
| OpenAI Agents SDK and API guidance | Isolated compute, endpoint allowlists, separated credentials, and a harness/control-plane versus sandbox execution-plane architecture. | Self-hosted operators must supply the isolation, proxy, secret handling, and operational controls. |
| OpenAI Codex deployment account | Describes sandbox boundaries, approvals, constrained networking, command rules, managed requirements, and agent-aware telemetry. | The description is for OpenAI’s deployment and was dated May 8, 2026; it is not a universal default or independent product evaluation. |
| Anthropic managed-agent cloud environments | limited and unrestricted networking modes with host matching and documented package-manager and MCP considerations. |
API and Console defaults differ, allowed hosts can accept uploads, and the behavior should not be generalized to every Anthropic product. |
Test the boundary before trusting it
Use a disposable project and deliberately attempt the failures your threat model includes. A control is useful only if the attempted path is denied, reviewed, or visibly logged.
| Test | Expected result | If it succeeds unexpectedly |
|---|---|---|
| Read a host file outside the mount | Access is denied or the file does not exist in the sandbox. | Inspect mounts, symlinks, shared sockets, and helper processes. |
| Read an ignored or hidden file through shell | A display filter may hide it, but a real boundary must deny it when it is outside the allowed paths. | Replace the filter with filesystem and shell isolation. |
| Run a package install | It is blocked, reviewed, or limited to documented registries. | Check lifecycle scripts, registry redirects, and newly contacted hosts. |
| Upload a harmless marker to an allowed host | The operation is denied or requires the intended approval. | Reclassify the host as mutation-capable and narrow credentials or methods. |
| Invoke a local MCP tool | Its host execution and permissions are explicit and logged. | Isolate the server separately; do not rely on the agent sandbox. |
| Attempt to use an SSH agent or signing service | Only the approved identity and destination can request a signature. | Remove forwarding or add a constrained broker and approval gate. |
| Modify a Git hook or build script | The change is reviewed before execution on a trusted host. | Treat project configuration as executable code and keep it in the sandbox until reviewed. |
Repeat these tests after changing the runtime, network policy, host integration, or vendor version. Defaults, host lists, and feature names can change; verify the exact product, version, and deployment mode in use.
Use these questions to compare any implementation
| Axis | Questions |
|---|---|
| Filesystem | Is it mountless, read-only, a private clone, or a live read-write mount? Which hidden files, symlinks, sockets, and shared stores are exposed? |
| Network | Is egress denied by default? Are rules host-based, wildcarded, organization-managed, and applied to tool backends as well as shell? |
| Commands and approvals | Can arbitrary shell run? Which commands trigger review? Can another tool bypass command filters? What OS, VM, or sandbox mechanism enforces the boundary? |
| Credentials | Are secrets in process-readable variables, brokered per destination, scoped, revocable, and auditable? Can forwarded agents request signatures? |
| Integrations and audit | Where do MCP servers run? Which host permissions do they inherit? Are prompts, approvals, tool outputs, and network decisions logged? |
Compare answers to those questions rather than comparing marketing labels. The security outcome depends on the selected mode, active policy, mounted paths, integrations, and operational review.
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