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To determine which credentials an AI agent used, reconstruct one action across three records: the agent or workload sign-in, any token exchange or credential retrieval, and the downstream authorization and action event. Keep three identities separate throughout the investigation: the user or workload whose authority is represented, the agent that made the call, and the credential source or issuer. Join the records with UTC timestamps, request or correlation IDs, token subjects, audiences, and resource names. A downstream event by itself rarely proves which upstream token or secret instance was used.
What an audit must establish
A useful audit answers four different questions rather than searching for a single “credential used” field:
- Who initiated or authorized the work? This may be a human user, an application, a workload identity, or a service account.
- Which agent or workload actually called the service? The agent can be a distinct service principal or another machine identity.
- Where did the credential come from? It may have been retrieved from an agent-identity service, exchanged from another token, generated as a short-lived credential, or obtained through a role-assumption flow.
- What did the target service authorize and execute? The final event should show the principal presented to the target, the requested scope or permission, the resource, and the allow or deny result.
Do not treat “the user was the token subject” as proof that the agent possessed the user’s raw password, API key, or refresh token. Delegated and on-behalf-of flows carry user context without handing the original secret to the agent.
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Separate the identities in every record
Initiating principal or token subject
The subject is the user or workload represented by a token. In a delegated flow it may be a signed-in user; in a service-to-service flow it may be the agent’s application identity. Record the immutable subject identifier, tenant or account, and the authentication method rather than relying on a display name.
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Agent or workload actor
The actor is the software identity that requested a token, invoked a tool, or called the downstream API. A well-instrumented system records an agent ID, service principal, workload identity, blueprint, run ID, or application client ID. The actor and subject can be different in an on-behalf-of exchange.
Credential source and issuer
Source identifies the system that supplied or minted the credential: an identity provider, agent-identity credential service, workload-federation provider, secret broker, or role-assumption endpoint. Issuer, audience, grant type, credential type, and issuance time help distinguish one exchange from another. Audit logs should expose these attributes without recording the secret or token value itself.
Choose the identity pattern before interpreting the evidence
The same agent can use more than one pattern for different functions. Identify the intended pattern first; otherwise a valid service identity can look like an attribution failure.
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| Pattern | What the downstream call represents | Best fit | Audit questions |
|---|---|---|---|
| User-delegated authorization code | Access authorized by a user and limited to granted permissions | Interactive work on that user’s data | Which user consented, which scopes were granted, and which client or agent used the resulting access? |
| Client credentials or machine identity | The application or agent itself | Background jobs and organization-owned resources | Which service identity and application permissions made the call? |
| On-behalf-of (OBO) token exchange | User context and agent identity propagated together | An authenticated agent calling another service with user-level authorization | Who was the token subject, which agent was the actor, and what audience and scopes did the exchanged token carry? |
AWS describes these three patterns using data ownership, user presence or consent, and execution timing. Its guidance also notes that one agent may combine them. Microsoft similarly distinguishes service-to-service (S2S) and OBO modes.
Step-by-step audit workflow
1. Define the action precisely
- Write down the target system, account or tenant, resource identifier, operation, and approximate UTC time.
- Collect every application request ID, trace ID, job ID, conversation ID, tool-call ID, and agent-run ID available from the agent and gateway.
- Record whether the action was interactive, scheduled, retried, or part of a batch. A retry can create several credential events for one apparent action.
Use a narrow initial time window, then expand it to account for clock skew and queueing. Preserve the original timestamps and the time zone in your case notes.
2. Start at the downstream target
Find the event that shows the actual read, write, deployment, message, or data export. Capture the principal the target saw, authentication type, resource, method, status, policy decision, and any request ID. Do not infer a human user from a service-account name or from the agent’s prompt.
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If the target event says only “application,” “role,” or “service account,” treat that as the end of the first search branch, not as proof of the complete chain.
3. Trace sign-in and credential issuance
Search the identity provider and cloud audit service around the target timestamp for sign-in, token exchange, credential retrieval, short-lived credential generation, or role-assumption events. Join records using, in order of reliability:
- Exact request, correlation, or trace identifier
- Token subject, actor, client ID, and resource audience
- Provider or service-account resource name
- Grant type, method name, and status
- Closest matching UTC timestamp, adjusted for documented clock differences
Credential retrieval and token exchange can be separate events from the final API call. A successful issuance event proves a credential was minted or retrieved, not that it was later accepted or that the requested action completed.
4. Read subject and actor separately
In OBO, the signed-in user can remain the token subject while the agent is the actor that requested and presented the exchanged token. In a machine-to-machine flow, the agent identity can be both actor and subject. In a delegated authorization-code flow, consent and granted scopes belong to the user, while the client or agent identifies the software using them.
Write both fields in your case record. If a log exposes only one, state which identity is missing rather than collapsing the two into “the user.”
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Compare the token’s intended audience with the target service and inspect granted scopes, application roles, resource policies, consent records, and conditional-access results. Check both allow and deny decisions. A token can be issued successfully for the wrong audience, or a correctly scoped token can be denied by a resource policy.
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Record whether the operation actually succeeded, partially succeeded, or was retried. Authorization and execution are separate facts.
6. Check logging coverage and integrity
- Confirm that Data Access or the provider’s equivalent category was enabled before the event.
- Check whether the relevant API writes control-plane, data-plane, sign-in, or application logs.
- Verify retention, export destinations, ingestion delays, and clock alignment.
- Restrict modification rights on log sinks and preserve the original event payload and ingestion metadata.
- Note client-side failures that the provider says are not logged.
Do not interpret an empty search as “no credential operation occurred” until these checks pass.
7. Report a conclusion with confidence and gaps
State the mechanism evidenced by the records, the subject, the agent actor, the credential source, the target resource, and the result. Label each statement as confirmed, strongly correlated, or inferred. List missing exchange, retrieval, gateway, or target events and explain why they prevent a stronger conclusion.
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Microsoft Entra and Agent 365
Microsoft describes agent identities as distinct service principals and supports S2S, OBO, and agent-user execution modes. In S2S, the agent identity is the token subject. In OBO, the signed-in user is the subject and the agent identity is the actor. Entra sign-in and audit records can distinguish the blueprint, agent identity, and agent user account, and can expose credential source, acting identity, and token subject.
Entra documentation describes agentSignIn events and agentType and blueprintId fields in relevant audit resource types. Agent sign-ins can appear across four sign-in log types because an agent may use delegated or app-only permissions. Filter by agent type and the agent-sign-in indicator, then confirm the current API version, tenant availability, permissions, and event schema in your environment; the referenced Microsoft Graph endpoint is beta.
Blueprint credentials are shared by every agent identity created from that blueprint. Use one blueprint per credential boundary when you need clean attribution. A blueprint reference does not prove that a downstream API logged the raw credential or a unique secret identifier.
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AWS AgentCore and AWS security guidance
AWS AgentCore documents user-delegated OAuth authorization code, machine-to-machine client credentials, and OBO token exchange. Its OBO model uses an audience-scoped downstream token that binds user and agent identity so the receiving service can evaluate both. When auditing AWS workloads, identify which pattern was used for the specific function instead of assuming the agent always used one role or token type.
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Google Cloud Agent Identity and Workload Identity Federation
Google’s Agent Identity audit documentation lists RetrieveCredentials as a Data Access event. Search for that event separately from the eventual API operation.
Google’s Workload Identity Federation examples show Data Access entries for token exchange and short-lived service-account credential generation. The records can include principal subject, method name, provider or resource, grant type, status, and authorization details. Downstream activity can identify the impersonated service account and the identity that created the short-lived credentials.
Data Access logging must be enabled for all relevant exchange steps. In the documented example, client errors such as invalid credentials or invalid arguments are not logged. Therefore, an absent exchange event is inconclusive until logging coverage and the failure mode have been checked.
Okta token exchange
Okta’s OAuth token-exchange grant uses subject-token parameters. Its delegation-chain example separates the original origin, an agent that delegated onward, the immediate actor, and the subject whose authority is represented. Use that model when correlating multi-agent calls, but verify the exact claims emitted by your authorization server and accepted by the downstream resource.
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How to handle common attribution failures
Only a downstream service-account event exists
This proves which principal the target authorized, not which human, agent run, or upstream token created it. Look for credential-generation and impersonation events, then use application tracing to connect the service account to a particular run. If the account uses a shared static key, the target may never be able to distinguish individual users or agents.
The user appears as the token subject
Check for an actor, client, delegation-chain, or OBO field before concluding that the agent used the user’s credential. A user subject commonly means that user context was delegated. The agent may have presented a separate exchanged token.
Several credential events match one action
Separate initial issuance, refresh, exchange, and retry events by request ID, audience, grant type, and expiration. A short-lived token can be generated more than once while the final action occurs only once.
No token-exchange event is present
Verify whether the application used a client credential directly, whether Data Access logging was disabled, whether the event is in another provider or tenant, and whether the attempt failed client-side. Check retention and ingestion delay before treating the gap as evidence of bypass.
A shared blueprint or role serves multiple agents
Use blueprint, service-principal, workload, run, and gateway logs to narrow the actor. If those identifiers are absent, report the boundary honestly: the evidence may establish the shared identity but not the individual agent instance.
Design the system so future audits work
- Give each agent or workload a distinct identity. Avoid a universal key or role reused by unrelated agents.
- Keep credential boundaries explicit. Use separate blueprints, service principals, or workload identities where independent attribution is required.
- Prefer short-lived credentials. They reduce replay exposure and give issuance and expiration times that can be correlated with a run.
- Propagate user context in signed claims. Carry a verifiable subject and delegation chain instead of allowing the agent to assume the user’s secret.
- Apply least privilege and audience restriction. Limit both the permissions and the resources an exchanged token can reach.
- Log at every trust boundary. Capture sign-in, exchange or retrieval, gateway/tool invocation, downstream authorization, and action result.
- Preserve correlation identifiers end to end. Pass a request or trace ID from the agent through the token service and target API where supported.
- Protect and export logs. Use controlled sinks, retention appropriate to your incident policy, and monitoring for dropped or altered events.
These controls improve attribution; they do not by themselves prevent prompt injection or unsafe tool arguments. Authorization, input validation, and auditability remain separate controls.
A practical audit report format
Use a compact record that makes uncertainty visible:
| Field | What to record |
|---|---|
| Action | Target, resource, operation, result, and UTC time |
| Agent run | Agent ID, blueprint or workload, run ID, tool-call ID, and application request ID |
| Subject | User or workload identifier represented by the token |
| Actor | Agent, client, service principal, or immediate delegating identity |
| Credential event | Retrieval, exchange, generation, or role assumption; issuer; method; grant type; audience; and issuance time |
| Authorization | Scopes or roles, policy and consent decision, allow or deny result |
| Evidence quality | Exact correlation, close time match, inferred link, and missing records |
| Coverage | Logging categories, retention, exports, and known client-side gaps |
A strong conclusion might say: “The target authorized service principal A at 14:03:11 UTC. A preceding OBO exchange issued an audience-scoped token whose subject was user U and whose actor was agent A. The exchange and target request share correlation ID C; Data Access logging was enabled. No raw secret value was logged or required.” If the exchange is missing, replace that sentence with the narrower fact the records support.
What the evidence cannot prove universally
There is no provider-neutral event schema or universal retention period that guarantees every credential operation will be visible. A sign-in event and a downstream API event may still leave the exact token instance, secret version, or agent run unidentified. Provider schemas, permissions, preview status, API versions, and logging settings change, so validate the current behavior in the tenant and service you are auditing.
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