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Antimony is mined mainly from ore containing stibnite, then separated and converted into metal through a route chosen for the ore’s mineral composition and grade. Commonly described routes include concentrating sulfide ore, roasting it to make antimony oxide and reducing that oxide, smelting, or separating antimony sulfide by liquation before converting it. Some feeds can also be treated by leaching and electrowinning. There is no single process used for every antimony deposit.
What ore is antimony found in?
The most common antimony ore mineral is stibnite (Sb₂S₃), a sulfide. Antimony also occurs in more than 100 other minerals, according to the USGS’s 2017 overview of antimony. A deposit may be mined primarily for antimony, or antimony may be recovered as a byproduct of mining gold, silver, or other metals, as described by the USGS in its 2021 review of antimony deposits.
The mineral mix matters because it affects how the ore can be separated and which extraction route is appropriate. A sulfide-rich feed, an oxide-bearing feed, and a complex ore containing other recoverable minerals do not necessarily follow the same flowsheet.
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Mining begins by locating and developing an antimony-bearing deposit. The ore is excavated and transported for processing, or in some cases shipped at a grade suitable for its next processing step. The available sources support describing these stages generally, but not assigning one mining method to all deposits: the method depends on the deposit and its setting.
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Antimony production also does not always come from a stand-alone antimony mine. Where it occurs with gold, silver, or other metals, recovery may be part of a broader operation. The USGS’s 2021 deposit review reports that about 61% of world antimony production in 2018 was mined in China, followed by Russia at 20% and Tajikistan at 10%. These are historical 2018 shares, not a current production ranking.
How is antimony separated from its ore?
1. Crush and grind the ore when needed
Run-of-mine ore may be crushed and ground to liberate antimony minerals from the surrounding rock, called gangue. Ore that is already at a suitable grade may not need the same preparation. Complex ores may also be processed to recover associated minerals.
2. Concentrate antimony minerals
For sulfide ores, gravity separation and flotation are documented concentration methods. Gravity separation exploits differences in mineral density; flotation separates minerals according to how they interact with bubbles and the process chemistry. These steps make a concentrate rather than metal: the concentrate still needs a suitable extraction process.
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The U.S. EPA’s 1998 technical background on mineral-processing sectors describes these methods and several downstream routes. It is a historical, generalized technical account, not a specification for every modern plant.
How is antimony concentrate turned into metal?
Once the ore is prepared, the process depends on factors such as whether the feed is sulfide or oxide, its grade and mineral composition, the desired intermediate product, and the need to separate impurities or recover other minerals. The documented routes are alternatives, not a single sequence that every operation follows.
| Route | How it works | Typical intermediate or output | Key consideration |
|---|---|---|---|
| Roasting and oxide reduction | Roasting drives off sulfur and produces antimony oxide, which is captured in flues or dust-collection equipment. The oxide is then reduced to metal. | Oxide, then antimony metal | Control of sulfur-bearing gases and antimony-bearing dust is important. |
| Blast-furnace smelting | The feed is smelted so antimony-bearing metal separates from slag. | Crude metal and slag | Feed suitability and management of slag and process residues matter. |
| Liquation followed by conversion | Heating separates molten antimony sulfide from gangue. The sulfide may be a product or may be converted to metal, including by iron precipitation or oxide reduction. | Antimony sulfide, then potentially metal | It separates a sulfide phase; further conversion may be needed to make metal. |
| Leaching and electrowinning | Antimony is leached into solution and then deposited at a cathode by electrowinning. | Electrowon antimony | The EPA account describes this as an alternative route but does not establish its current prevalence worldwide. |
Roasting and reduction
In the oxide route, roasting converts antimony-bearing sulfide material into oxide while sulfur is driven off. The oxide-bearing fume is collected, then processed to recover metal by reduction. Capturing material from flues and dust collectors is part of the process, not an incidental detail: antimony can travel with dust, so collection and residue handling affect both recovery and emissions control.
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Smelting
Blast-furnace smelting is another documented option. It separates antimony-bearing metal from slag, leaving a crude metal product that may need refining. The suitability of smelting depends on the feed; it should not be treated as the automatic next step for every concentrate.
Liquation and sulfide conversion
Liquation uses heat to separate molten antimony sulfide from gangue. That sulfide may be sold as a product rather than converted further. If metal is wanted, the sulfide can be converted, for example through iron precipitation or by producing oxide and then reducing it.
Leaching and electrowinning
Hydrometallurgy offers a different approach: leach antimony into a solution, then use an electrical current to deposit it at a cathode. The EPA’s 1998 description establishes that this route has been documented; it does not show how widely it is used in current global production.
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Why does the process route vary?
There is no reliable basis in the cited process account for ranking these routes universally by cost, energy use, or recovery. Those outcomes depend on the ore and plant design, and comparable current plant-performance data are not established here. In practice, process selection turns on the feed and the site’s ability to manage products and residues.
- Mineralogy and grade: the amount and form of antimony, plus the presence of other minerals, affect separation and extraction.
- Sulfide or oxide feed: each form presents different conversion choices.
- Target product: an operation may aim for a concentrate, sulfide product, oxide intermediate, or metal.
- Impurities and co-products: the process may need to separate unwanted material or recover associated metals.
- Site controls: dust, sulfur-bearing gases, process water, tailings, and slag all require appropriate management.
The EPA’s historical generalized account describes lower-grade sulfide material being volatilized as oxides, intermediate-grade feeds treated in a blast furnace, and higher-grade sulfide ore handled by liquation or iron precipitation. These are historical process descriptions, not universal grade cutoffs or modern design rules.
Does crude antimony need refining?
Often, the recovered metal is crude and may undergo further refining to remove impurities. The precise refining steps depend on the impurities and product specifications; the cited sources do not establish one universal refining sequence. Refining also creates additional process streams that must be managed alongside smelting or conversion residues.
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What happens to tailings, dust, slag, and water?
Processing does not end when metal is recovered. Tailings, waste rock, slag, collected dust, and water streams can contain antimony and require site-specific controls. The USGS’s 2023 review of antimony in mine wastes explains that antimony-bearing stibnite and sulfosalts can release antimony into surface water, groundwater, soils, plants, and river sediments.
How mobile antimony becomes depends on mineralogy and local geochemistry. Iron oxyhydroxides can limit its movement in some settings, while secondary antimony minerals can influence water concentrations in others. The same review cautions against assuming that antimony always behaves like arsenic; remediation needs to account for antimony’s distinct biogeochemical behavior.
What rules govern antimony-smelting pollution?
Environmental requirements depend on jurisdiction. China’s Ministry of Ecology and Environment lists HJ 938—2017, a technical specification for pollutant-discharge permits for antimony-smelting units. It took effect on 2017-12-27. This is a Chinese permitting reference, not a global standard; other jurisdictions set their own requirements.
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How much antimony is mined, and where?
The cited sources do not establish a current, date-matched global production total suitable for a present-tense estimate. Historical statistics should therefore be read with their dates attached. The USGS’s 2021 deposit-review page gives 2018 country shares: China 61%, Russia 20%, and Tajikistan 10% of world antimony production.
A separate figure in the abstract of the USGS’s 2017 antimony report says global atmospheric emissions averaged 6,100 metric tons per year. That is the figure and framing reported in that publication; it is not a current measured emissions rate or a mining-production statistic.
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