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U.S. commercial banks mainly earn money by taking in funding—especially deposits—then lending or investing those funds at higher rates than they pay to depositors and other lenders. Interest collected minus interest paid is net interest income (NII). NII is important, but it is not the same as profit: fees, payroll, technology, branches, taxes, credit losses, liquidity needs and capital requirements all affect the final result.
The spread is not automatic. Loan yields, deposit costs and securities values can react to market-rate changes at different speeds, so higher interest rates can help some banks, hurt others or produce mixed results.
The basic banking money loop
A bank’s interest business has four linked stages:
- Raise funding. The bank accepts checking, savings and time deposits and may also borrow in wholesale markets or issue other liabilities.
- Put funds to work. It makes consumer, mortgage and business loans, buys investment securities and keeps interest-earning balances at other institutions.
- Collect and pay interest. Borrowers and security issuers pay the bank. The bank pays interest on qualifying deposits and borrowings.
- Keep the net amount before other costs. Interest income less interest expense produces NII, which must still cover operating expenses, credit losses, taxes and other obligations.
A deposit is therefore both a customer liability and a source of funding. The bank cannot count the deposit balance as income, and it cannot treat all loan interest as profit. The economics come from managing the difference between what assets earn and what funding costs.
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How deposits give a bank funding
When a customer deposits $1,000, the bank records a liability to that customer. At the same time, it receives cash that can support loans, securities purchases and payment activity. The bank must remain able to meet withdrawals, transfers and other claims, so liquidity management is part of the cost of using deposits.
Noninterest-bearing transaction accounts
Some checking and transaction accounts pay no stated interest. They can be inexpensive sources of funding because the bank has no explicit interest expense on the balance. They are not free, however: the bank still pays for payment networks, fraud controls, account servicing, technology, branches and the liquidity needed to honor withdrawals.
Interest-bearing accounts
Savings accounts, money-market deposit accounts and time deposits generally carry an interest rate. The rate depends on the account contract, maturity, market conditions and competition for customers. A bank that raises its deposit rates to retain balances increases interest expense, narrowing NII unless asset yields rise enough to offset the increase.
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Why deposit costs can change unevenly
Deposit rates do not necessarily move one-for-one with a central-bank policy rate or with loan rates. A bank may leave rates unchanged for a time when customers are not seeking alternatives, then raise them quickly if customers begin moving money to higher-yielding accounts or competing institutions. The mix of stable transaction balances, rate-sensitive savings and repricing time deposits therefore matters as much as the total deposit balance.
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Where banks earn interest
Loans
Loans are the most familiar earning assets. Consumer loans, residential mortgages, commercial real-estate loans, credit lines and business loans have different interest rates, maturities, collateral and default risks. A floating-rate business loan may reset periodically with a market benchmark, while a fixed-rate mortgage can keep the same coupon for years.
The contractual annual percentage rate is not the bank’s profit margin. From the interest collected, the bank must fund the loan, service it, absorb expected and unexpected credit losses and pay personnel, technology, facilities and regulatory costs.
Investment securities
Banks also earn interest from government and agency securities, corporate debt and other permitted investments. Securities can diversify the loan book and provide liquidity, but their maturities and coupons create interest-rate exposure. When market rates rise, the market value of existing fixed-rate securities generally falls because newly issued securities offer higher yields. That valuation effect can matter even when the older security continues to pay its contractual coupons.
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Cash and balances placed with other banks or official institutions can earn interest while supporting settlement and liquidity needs. These balances usually have different yields and repricing behavior from loans, so their contribution changes with market conditions.
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Four measures that explain the interest business
| Measure | What it means | How to read it |
|---|---|---|
| Interest income | Interest collected on loans, securities and other interest-earning assets. | Shows the gross return from earning assets before funding costs. |
| Interest expense | Interest paid on deposits, borrowings and other interest-bearing liabilities. | Shows the price of funding, not an operating expense total. |
| Net interest income (NII) | Interest income minus interest expense. | Measures the dollars generated by the interest spread before noninterest costs and credit losses. |
| Net interest margin (NIM) | NII divided by average earning assets, using the institution’s stated reporting convention. | Expresses interest profitability relative to the assets producing interest. |
| Net interest spread | A difference between yields earned on assets and rates paid on interest-bearing liabilities. | Useful for yield-versus-funding comparisons, but it is not interchangeable with NIM. |
The Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis describes NIM as the difference between interest earned on investments such as loans and securities and interest paid on deposits and borrowings. In published financial statements, a bank can report NII, spread and NIM as separate figures because they use different denominators and conventions.
A 2025 bank filing example
The following figures come from one institution’s SEC-filed annual report for the year ended December 31, 2025. They illustrate the mechanics; they are not a sector average or a prediction for every bank.
| 2025 figure | Reported amount or rate |
|---|---|
| Interest income on interest-earning assets | $1.289 billion |
| Interest expense on interest-bearing liabilities | $386.460 million |
| Net interest income | $902.588 million |
| Net interest margin | 4.51% |
| Net interest spread | 3.77% |
| Average interest-bearing deposits | $13.357 billion |
| Average cost of interest-bearing deposits | 2.60% |
| Average rate on savings and interest-bearing transaction accounts | 2.42% |
| Average rate on time deposits | 3.66% |
Subtracting the reported interest expense from interest income gives the reported NII after rounding. The different spread and margin percentages show why the terms should not be treated as synonyms: the filing calculates each under its own definition.
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The joint Federal Reserve, FDIC and OCC interest-rate-risk policy statement puts the central issue plainly: “Changes in interest rates affect a bank’s earnings by changing its net interest income and the level of other interest-sensitive income and operating expenses.” The direction and size of the effect depend on the bank’s balance sheet and customer behavior.
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Asset repricing speed
Floating-rate loans and short-term securities can reprice soon after market rates move. Fixed-rate loans keep their contractual yield until maturity or refinancing. A bank with many floating-rate assets may see asset income rise quickly, while a bank concentrated in long-term fixed-rate loans may not.
Funding repricing speed
Deposit costs may initially adjust slowly, especially where customers value convenience and transaction services. Competition can change that pattern. If depositors demand higher yields, the bank may have to reprice savings accounts and renew time deposits at higher rates, reducing the benefit from higher loan yields.
Market-value effects
Higher rates generally reduce the market value of existing fixed-rate securities. The accounting treatment depends on the security classification and applicable rules, but the economic exposure remains relevant to liquidity, capital planning and the ability to sell assets.
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Credit and volume effects
Rate changes can alter borrowing demand and repayment performance. Higher payments may weaken some borrowers, increasing provisions or realized credit losses. Lower rates can reduce asset yields even if loan volumes grow. Banks therefore manage both the price and the quality of earning assets.
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A simple illustrative calculation
Consider a hypothetical bank with $100 million of average loans earning 7% and $80 million of interest-bearing deposits costing 3%. Ignoring every other asset and expense, annual loan interest would be $7 million and deposit interest would be $2.4 million, leaving $4.6 million of simplified NII. That is not profit: the bank would still need to cover securities funding, staff, technology, facilities, servicing, expected losses, taxes and capital costs. If deposit costs rose to 5% while loan yields stayed at 7%, deposit interest would become $4 million and the simplified NII would fall to $3 million.
Interest is only one part of bank revenue
Banks also earn noninterest income. Depending on the institution, this can include account and payment fees, card interchange, wealth-management charges, investment-banking fees, servicing income and other customer services. The available evidence does not establish one current, universal percentage split between interest and fee revenue for all U.S. banks.
Profit also reflects expenses and loss provisions. A bank with strong NII can still report weak net income if operating costs or credit losses rise. Conversely, fee income can support results when loan margins are under pressure, although fee businesses have their own costs, risks and sensitivity to economic activity.
What recent U.S. figures show
These dated figures provide context without turning one period into a permanent rule:
- The Federal Reserve’s June 2026 Banking System Conditions report described aggregate deposits at U.S. commercial banks as $18.3 trillion in August 2025, a historical high in that report.
- The same report described aggregate loan growth of more than 5% annualized in the second quarter of 2025.
- The FDIC reported $29.9 billion in full-year 2025 net income for community banks, up 22.5% from 2024, and said the increase was primarily attributable to higher NII. This statistic covers community banks, not every U.S. bank.
The figures are reported for specified dates and groups. They should not be read as live 2026 quarter-end results or as a guarantee that any individual bank experienced the same change.
How to compare two banks’ interest earnings
Use same-period financial statements and confirm that each institution defines its measures comparably. A useful comparison includes:
| Comparison | Why it matters | Questions to ask |
|---|---|---|
| NIM and NII trend | Shows both rate efficiency and dollar contribution. | Did NII and NIM rise or fall, and over what period? |
| Asset yields | Identifies how much loans, securities and other assets earn. | Is growth coming from higher rates, more assets or a change in mix? |
| Funding costs | Shows how expensive deposits and borrowings are. | Are deposit rates rising faster than asset yields? |
| Deposit mix | Noninterest-bearing and rate-sensitive deposits affect funding economics differently. | What share is checking, savings, money-market or time deposits? |
| Repricing profile | Determines how quickly income and expense respond to rate moves. | How much is floating-rate, short-term or fixed-rate? |
| Credit quality | Interest income can be offset by provisions and charge-offs. | Are nonperforming loans, provisions or net charge-offs increasing? |
| Noninterest income and expenses | NII alone does not determine net income. | Are fees, personnel, technology and other costs changing materially? |
Common mistakes to avoid
- Calling deposits profit: deposits are liabilities that must be repaid, even though they provide useful funding.
- Calling the loan APR profit: funding, servicing, defaults, overhead, taxes and capital consume part of the interest.
- Using spread and NIM interchangeably: check each filing’s numerator and denominator.
- Assuming higher rates always help: deposit competition, fixed-rate assets, valuation changes and credit losses can reverse the benefit.
- Generalizing one bank’s filing: an institution-specific 2025 result is not a typical-bank guarantee.
- Ignoring timing: compare the same reporting periods and note whether rates are promotional, contractual, annualized or average balances.
Bottom line
Banks earn money from the gap between interest received on loans, securities and other earning assets and interest paid on deposits and borrowings. That gap appears in NII and is expressed relative to earning assets through NIM. The outcome depends on repricing speed, deposit competition, asset mix, credit quality, securities values and operating costs. Interest is the core engine of traditional commercial banking, but the bank’s actual profit is what remains after every funding, risk and operating cost is accounted for.
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