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Free space optics (FSO) is wireless communication that sends information on light through open space from a transmitter to a receiver. It avoids a continuous fibre cable between the terminals, but it depends on a clear, usable optical path and accurately aligned equipment.
How free space optics works
An FSO transmitter encodes information onto an optical signal—often laser light—and directs a narrow beam toward a receiving terminal. The receiver detects the light and decodes the information. The beam is the communications carrier; FSO itself does not specify the networking protocol carried over the link.
In spacecraft communications, NASA also uses the terms “laser communications” and “lasercom.” Its SmallSat Institute describes these links as using optical wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation to transmit messages wirelessly between user terminals. Space systems commonly use near-infrared wavelengths, with examples including 1064 nm and 1550 nm. NASA SmallSat Institute: Communications
Where FSO is used
Space communications
Optical links can support spacecraft communication functions such as uplinks, downlinks, and crosslinks between spacecraft. NASA describes optical communications as using light rather than radio frequencies in this context. NASA: Communicating with Missions
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Terrestrial links
On Earth, FSO can connect fixed points without laying fibre along the entire route. Potential uses include short-reach mobile backhaul, last-mile access, temporary or emergency links, and paths across geographic obstacles. These are possible applications, not guarantees that a link will work reliably at a particular location. ITU-T’s G.641 work item addresses terrestrial FSO applications primarily for short-reach mobile backhaul and covers both FSO and fibre interfaces. ITU-T G.641 work item
What affects an FSO link
Because the beam is narrow, terminals must be mounted and pointed accurately. That precision can support high-capacity communications, but alignment and path conditions are central to whether a link performs as intended. NASA identifies precise pointing and atmospheric interference, including clouds, as challenges. NASA: Communicating with Missions
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For terrestrial links, the atmosphere can attenuate the signal or cause fluctuations. Weather, path characteristics, terminal mounting, geometrical and atmospheric attenuation, turbulence-related scintillation, ambient light, and link margin are all considered in ITU-R’s terrestrial FSO design guidance. Recommendation ITU-R P.1814-1, dated September 2025, sets out prediction methods for these design factors. ITU-R P.1814-1
These dependencies mean an FSO link should be assessed for its actual route and availability needs. A fixed speed, range, or uptime cannot be assumed from the term “FSO” alone.
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FSO compared with RF and fibre
| Link type | What carries the signal | Key consideration |
|---|---|---|
| FSO | Optical light through open space | High bandwidth potential, with performance dependent on equipment, pointing, and propagation conditions. |
| RF | Radio-frequency waves | Uses radio bands; comparison with FSO depends on the application and system design. |
| Fibre | Optical signal in a physical fibre | Provides a cable-based path rather than a wireless path; ITU-T G.641 distinguishes FSO and fibre interfaces. |
NASA notes that optical systems can offer higher data rates than RF and have much narrower beams, with greater optical bandwidth potential. These are general advantages, not a guaranteed throughput figure for a particular link. NASA SmallSat Institute: Communications
FSO is therefore not automatically a replacement for RF or fibre. Suitability depends on the route, weather exposure, link budget, terminal mounting and pointing, and required availability. Costs and comparative availability figures are not established by the cited standards and descriptions, so they need project-specific evidence.
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Standards relevant to terrestrial FSO
- ITU-R P.1814-1 (September 2025): prediction methods for terrestrial FSO link design, including weather and propagation effects, mounting, and link-margin calculation. Recommendation details
- ITU-T G.641: work item for terrestrial FSO mobile backhaul and short-reach interfaces, covering FSO and fibre interfaces; its page lists approval on November 29, 2025. Work item details
- ITU-T G.640 (March 2006): in-force recommendation describing a procedure for assessing interference between co-located FSO transmission systems. Recommendation details
What FSO does not guarantee
- A particular speed or range: realized performance depends on the system and path.
- Uninterrupted availability: atmospheric effects and other link conditions can affect terrestrial performance.
- Automatic security: a narrow beam may reduce exposure compared with broadly radiated signals, but security depends on implementation; FSO does not itself guarantee confidentiality.
- Compatibility with every other system: co-located FSO equipment may need an interference assessment, as addressed by ITU-T G.640.
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