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When U.S. import tariffs fell and foreign competition intensified, manufacturers generally did not respond by buying rivals. A 2026 study of 1,127 U.S. manufacturing firms found that companies increased strategic alliances instead, while acquisition activity remained broadly unchanged. The pattern was strongest among firms with limited financial or operational capacity, firms already at a competitive disadvantage and businesses in industries where new entrants could enter relatively easily.
What the 2026 study found
Hanwen Sun and co-authors examined how firms changed their “boundaries”—the activities they perform internally versus through outside partners—after staggered U.S. import-tariff reductions. Their paper, “To Acquire or to Ally? Foreign Competition and Firm Boundary,” was published in the Journal of Business Finance & Accounting in 2026 (DOI: 10.1111/jbfa.70091).
The sample covered 1,127 U.S. manufacturing firms from 1990 through 2020. Many of the tariff changes were associated with implementation of NAFTA in 1994. The largest group of reductions in the study occurred in 1995, with additional cuts in 1992, 1997, 2004 and 2008.
After import barriers fell, firms exposed to greater foreign competition were more likely to expand strategic alliances. The researchers did not find a comparable broad increase in acquisitions. In other words, the typical response to a new competitive threat was collaboration rather than conquest.
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Why an alliance can be preferable to an acquisition
An acquisition gives a buyer control of another company, but it also requires a large financial commitment and integration of people, systems, operations and technology. An alliance can provide access to capabilities without requiring the same level of ownership or integration.
| Decision factor | Strategic alliance | Acquisition |
|---|---|---|
| Up-front commitment | Often more limited and structured around a defined collaboration | Requires purchasing control of the target and funding the transaction |
| Financial and operational flexibility | Preserves more room to adjust or end the relationship | Creates a lasting ownership and integration commitment |
| Access to capabilities | Can provide technology, knowledge, resources or market access through a partner | Brings capabilities inside the firm through ownership |
| Risk sharing | Partners can share investment and execution risk | The acquiring company assumes the transaction and integration risks |
| Innovation outcome in this study | Alliance-forming firms later showed higher R&D intensity and patent output | Acquisition activity was broadly unchanged, so the study does not report a corresponding acquisition-related innovation effect |
The study describes alliances as flexible and cost-effective ways to share risk, reach new technology and combine knowledge and resources. Partnerships could involve companies in the same industry or organizations in high-tech, business-to-consumer or product-differentiated sectors.
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Which manufacturers relied most on partnerships?
The alliance preference was not equally strong across all firms. It was clearest in three situations:
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- Competitive disadvantage: Companies already in a weaker position showed a stronger tendency to use alliances when foreign rivals became more threatening.
- Lower entry barriers: In industries where new competitors could enter more easily, alliances offered a way to obtain capabilities or reinforce market positions without committing to a full takeover.
These results suggest that an alliance is not simply a cheaper version of an acquisition. It is a different response to uncertainty: a firm can obtain selected capabilities, share exposure with a partner and retain the option to change course as competition develops.
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Innovation increased after the alliance response
Manufacturers that formed alliances under competitive pressure subsequently recorded higher R&D intensity and greater patent output. That pattern is consistent with partnerships giving firms access to technology, specialized knowledge or complementary resources that support innovation.
The evidence is an association, not a randomized causal estimate. The study does not prove that forming an alliance alone produced the additional research spending or patents. Firms that chose to ally may also have differed from other companies in resources, strategy or management. The finding nevertheless connects a trade-policy shock, a change in external-growth strategy and later innovation measures.
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How tariff reductions changed the strategic environment
Tariff reductions lower the protection previously enjoyed by domestic producers. Imported products can become more competitive, forcing U.S. manufacturers to improve costs, technology, distribution or product differentiation. The study shows that this pressure affected more than import volumes: it influenced how firms organized growth and access to capabilities.
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What the findings do—and do not—say about tariffs today
The evidence concerns U.S. manufacturing firms and tariff reductions between 1990 and 2020. It should not automatically be extended to tariff increases, service businesses, manufacturers in other countries or every current trade dispute. A tariff increase may create different incentives by raising input costs or restricting access to suppliers, while this study focuses on reductions that increased foreign competitive pressure.
The results also describe an average pattern. Some companies may still acquire rivals when ownership, control or rapid consolidation is essential. Others may form alliances that later become acquisitions, or partnerships that end without producing measurable innovation. The study’s conclusion is that alliances became the more common adjustment in the observed setting, not that acquisitions stopped being useful.
What the research means for business and policy
For managers, a sudden change in trade protection can require a review of external-growth options. The relevant question is not only whether to buy a competitor, but also whether a partnership can supply a missing technology, market channel or body of expertise with less irreversible commitment. Firms with constrained capacity may find that risk sharing and flexibility matter as much as control.
For policymakers, the study indicates that tariff policy can reshape corporate organization and innovation, not merely the price and volume of traded goods. Changes in trade barriers can influence whether companies invest internally, purchase other firms or collaborate across organizational boundaries. Those choices may affect firms’ ability to survive competitive shocks and innovate over the longer term.
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