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Direct air carbon capture and storage (DACCS), biochar, and reforestation can all remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but they store it in different places and face different constraints. DACCS captures CO₂ from ambient air and can store it underground; biochar turns biomass into a carbon-rich solid; reforestation stores carbon in growing trees and soils. The best choice depends on storage durability, net climate benefit, cost, resource needs, and local environmental and social conditions—not the method name alone. All three complement, rather than replace, deep emissions cuts.
How the three methods remove and store carbon
Carbon removal means taking carbon dioxide (CO₂) out of the atmosphere and retaining the carbon in a reservoir. A project’s net climate benefit depends on more than the carbon captured or the amount of biomass processed: energy, transport, land-use changes, production emissions, and the risk of later release also matter.
The three methods considered here use different mechanisms. DACCS uses engineered equipment to capture CO₂ from ambient air and then stores it, commonly in geological formations. Biochar is made by heating biomass in oxygen-limited conditions, a process called pyrolysis, to create a carbon-rich solid. Reforestation removes CO₂ as trees grow, storing carbon in above- and below-ground vegetation and soils.
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At a glance: what differs
| Comparison | DACCS | Biochar | Reforestation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Removal process | Engineered capture of CO₂ directly from ambient air | Biomass converted to a carbon-rich solid through oxygen-limited heating | Tree growth fixes atmospheric CO₂ |
| Main storage reservoir | Geological formations | Carbon-rich solid, often applied to soil | Vegetation and soils |
| Broad IPCC storage-duration category | Potentially millennia or longer with suitable geological storage | Commonly grouped in the centuries-to-millennia category; actual duration depends on biochar properties and setting | Typically decades to centuries; exposed to disturbance and land-use reversal |
| Indicative IPCC cost range | USD 100–300 per tonne of CO₂; a broader reported range is USD 84–386 | USD 10–345 per tonne of CO₂ | USD 0–240 per tonne of CO₂ for afforestation/reforestation |
| Key resource considerations | Energy, water, transport, and storage infrastructure | Sustainable biomass, process energy and emissions, land and soil context | Suitable land, time for forests to grow, ecosystem fit, and long-term management |
| Main concerns | Energy and water demand; storage integrity | Feedstock sustainability, production emissions, and possible biodiversity or carbon-stock impacts | Fire, drought, pests, land-use reversal, and competition with food production or natural ecosystems |
The cost figures are indicative ranges from the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Working Group III Technical Summary, published in 2022. They summarize estimates with different system boundaries and assumptions; they are not current market offers or like-for-like bids. The IPCC’s broad storage-duration categories are decades to centuries, centuries to millennia, and ten thousand years or longer. Those categories describe potential storage durations, not guarantees for individual projects.
Direct air capture and storage: engineered capture with geological storage
How DACCS works
DACCS equipment separates CO₂ from ordinary ambient air using chemical or physical processes. The captured CO₂ must then be transported and stored, commonly underground in a suitable geological formation. Unlike the other two approaches, the removal process does not depend on growing biomass, but the overall system still needs energy and infrastructure.
Where DACCS can make sense
Geological storage can provide a long-duration reservoir if the site and storage system are appropriately selected, operated, and monitored. That makes DACCS a potential option where durable storage is a priority and suitable energy, transport, and storage arrangements are available. The length of time associated with geological storage is a potential of the system, not evidence that a specific site is safe or permanent without due diligence.
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What to examine
- Energy supply: Capturing CO₂ and regenerating capture materials require energy. Electricity and heat that are carbon-intensive can reduce the net climate benefit.
- Water: Water demand is a relevant environmental consideration and varies with system design and location; no single universal quantity is established here.
- Transport and storage: The capture equipment alone does not complete the removal pathway. CO₂ must reach an appropriate storage site, and storage integrity requires care and monitoring.
- Deployment maturity: The IPCC assessment describes DACCS as a newer method, with demonstration and deployment still limited in scale at the time of assessment.
Biochar: converting biomass into a carbon-rich solid
How biochar is produced
Biochar is created by heating biomass in oxygen-limited conditions, known as pyrolysis. The resulting carbon-rich material can be applied to soil or used in other applications. The removal value depends on how the biomass was sourced, what would otherwise have happened to it, the emissions and energy associated with production, transport, the setting in which the biochar is used, and whether its carbon remains stored.
Why feedstock and production matter
Using biomass does not automatically mean carbon has been removed. If harvesting damages existing carbon stocks or biodiversity, those losses affect the climate and environmental result. The counterfactual matters too: the climate outcome differs depending on what would have happened to the biomass if it had not been used for biochar. Production can also involve particulate matter and greenhouse-gas emissions. These impacts must be considered alongside any energy recovery from the process.
Potential benefits and limitations
Biochar is commonly grouped in the IPCC’s centuries-to-millennia storage category, but the actual duration depends on biochar properties and the setting where it is used. It may offer soil or agricultural co-benefits, but their size depends on prior land use and soil management. A soil amendment’s presence by itself does not establish a quantified, durable net removal; the feedstock, production pathway, carbon accounting, and storage outcome all matter.
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The IPCC AR6 WGIII Technical Summary gives an indicative cost range of USD 10–345 per tonne of CO₂. That broad assessment-era range should not be treated as a price for a particular product or project.
Reforestation: restoring forest where it was recently present
Reforestation and afforestation are not the same
Reforestation restores forest on land that was recently forested. Afforestation establishes forest on land that has not been forested for a long time. The IPCC cost range below applies to afforestation/reforestation (A/R) together, so it should not be presented as a reforestation-only price.
How forest regrowth stores carbon
As trees grow, they fix atmospheric CO₂ and accumulate carbon in above- and below-ground biomass and soils. Forest regrowth is a familiar, widely practiced land-based approach. When locally appropriate, it can also support biodiversity, watershed functions, and livelihoods. The timing matters: trees need time to grow, so the carbon accumulates over time rather than being placed in a geological reservoir at the outset.
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Land selection and reversal risk
Forest carbon stocks can be reversed by fire, drought, pests, or later land-use change. Long-term protection, accounting for reversals, and local governance are therefore material to the claimed removal. Planting trees in the wrong place can also damage natural ecosystems or compete with food production. Reforestation is not a blanket case for planting trees on all open land; land history and ecosystem suitability matter, and protecting or restoring native ecosystems and allowing natural forest regrowth may be preferable to establishing trees on naturally non-forested land.
The IPCC AR6 WGIII Technical Summary reports an indicative cost range of USD 0–240 per tonne of CO₂ for afforestation/reforestation. The range comes from assessment-era literature rather than a current quote, and reflects estimates that differ in design and accounting.
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The assessment-era figures make the breadth of reported costs visible, but they do not identify a universal cheapest method. The ranges overlap, and their boundaries, project designs, energy assumptions, accounting methods, and local conditions differ. In particular, comparing the bottom of one range with the top of another does not establish what a buyer would pay for equivalent, verified, durable net removal.
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| Method | IPCC AR6 WGIII Technical Summary, 2022 | How to read the figure |
|---|---|---|
| Afforestation/reforestation | USD 0–240 per tonne of CO₂ | Indicative assessment range for A/R, not reforestation alone and not a current project quote |
| Biochar | USD 10–345 per tonne of CO₂ | Indicative assessment range; feedstock, production, use, and accounting affect the result |
| DACCS | USD 100–300 per tonne of CO₂; broader reported range USD 84–386 | Indicative assessment-era estimates, not a current offer or a like-for-like comparison with every other study |
Cost is only one axis. A meaningful comparison also asks what is included in the estimate, whether it reflects net removal rather than gross capture, what reservoir holds the carbon, how reversals are handled, and what energy, land, biomass, and water demands the project creates. The figures above should not be averaged into a single ranking.
Land, ecosystems, and people belong in the comparison
Land-based removal choices can affect biodiversity, food and water security, livelihoods, and Indigenous Peoples’ rights. Those impacts are not side issues: they influence whether a project is appropriate and whether it can be sustained. Land selection, tenure, species choice, and local governance all matter.
For a forest project, assess whether the land is appropriate for forest restoration rather than assuming tree cover is always beneficial. For a biochar project, examine whether biomass sourcing is sustainable and avoids damage to existing carbon stocks and ecosystems. DACCS does not require biomass growth, but it still has energy, water, transport, and storage requirements that need to be understood in their local context.
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A practical framework for evaluating a removal project
Use the same questions for each proposal before comparing its headline tonnes or cost:
- Identify the pathway. Is the project capturing CO₂ from ambient air, converting biomass into biochar, or restoring forest? Confirm what happens to the captured carbon or material afterward.
- Check the net climate result. Consider energy, process emissions, transport, land-use change, and the biomass counterfactual where relevant. Gross capture or biomass processed is not, by itself, the net removal.
- Determine the reservoir and reversal risks. Geological storage, biochar, and forest vegetation and soils have different potential durations and different failure or reversal pathways. Ask how site suitability, monitoring, and later release are addressed.
- Understand resource demands. For DACCS, examine energy, water, transport, and storage arrangements. For biochar, examine feedstock, process energy and emissions, and use conditions. For reforestation, examine suitable land, growth time, ecosystem fit, and long-term forest management.
- Review local impacts and governance. Consider biodiversity, food and water security, livelihoods, land tenure, and Indigenous Peoples’ rights, as well as who participates in decisions.
- Interpret costs within their boundaries. Establish what the estimate includes and whether it represents net CO₂ removal under the project’s conditions. Do not treat an assessment-era literature range as a present-day offer.
Where these methods fit in climate action
The IPCC frames carbon dioxide removal as a way to counterbalance residual emissions alongside deep, rapid, and sustained emissions reductions. It is not a substitute for cutting avoidable emissions or a reason to delay those cuts. A portfolio can include different removal approaches, but each project still needs a credible net climate case, suitable storage, and attention to environmental and social effects.
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