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Most construction projects with potential archaeological impact should begin with a Phase I archaeological survey, not a full excavation. Phase I combines records research and systematic fieldwork to locate archaeological sites and estimate their boundaries within the project’s area of potential effects (APE). Small shovel tests, probes, augers, cores or remote sensing may be used as part of that survey.
Excavation becomes appropriate only when survey results justify more detailed work. Phase II testing determines whether a site has the integrity and importance required for National Register of Historic Places eligibility. Phase III data recovery is a mitigation measure for an eligible site that cannot be avoided and will be damaged by construction. Your project’s location, ownership, ground-disturbance depth, federal connections and state, tribal or local rules determine the exact scope.
The short decision: survey first, excavation only when justified
| Project situation | Usually appropriate scope | Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Potential archaeological sensitivity, but no reliable site information | Phase I identification survey | Finds archaeological sites, estimates their boundaries and supports avoidance or further evaluation. |
| Artifacts, features or an apparently intact deposit found during Phase I | Phase II evaluation/testing | Determines site integrity and makes a defensible National Register eligibility determination. |
| An eligible site would be adversely affected and avoidance or preservation is infeasible | Phase III data recovery/mitigation | Excavates under an approved research design to recover information before construction damages or destroys the site. |
| A known sensitive location, cemetery or narrowly defined risk area will be disturbed | Archaeological monitoring, with an agency-approved strategy | Observes earthmoving in real time and pauses work if a feature or deposit appears; it is not a universal substitute for survey. |
| Federal land or a federal funding, license, permit or approval connection | Section 106 review, and possibly ARPA or another permit | The federal agency leads consultation and determines identification, evaluation and treatment requirements. |
A construction manager should retain a Secretary of the Interior-qualified cultural-resource-management (CRM) archaeologist early enough to schedule fieldwork, consultation, reporting, curation and any mitigation.
What an archaeological survey does
A survey is an identification exercise. The archaeologist asks where archaeological resources may be, what kinds of deposits are present, how far they extend and whether construction can avoid them. Survey work is designed to sample the project area while preserving as much of the site as possible.
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Phase I: identification and boundary definition
The National Park Service describes Phase I as a combination of background research and fieldwork intended to identify resources and define site boundaries within a project area or APE. A normal scope can include:
- Records and archival searches for previously recorded sites, surveys, historic structures and prior disturbances.
- Historic-map, deed and land-use research where relevant.
- Environmental and geomorphological review, including landforms, soils, slope, drainage and the potential for buried deposits.
- A systematic pedestrian walkover, adjusted for vegetation, visibility, fill and safety.
- Subsurface tests such as shovel tests, soil probes, augers, cores or mechanical trenches where surface inspection cannot identify buried materials.
- Remote sensing when geophysical or other methods are suitable to the soil and expected features.
The report should map the project footprint and all identified resources, explain the sampling strategy and state field limitations. It should also recommend no further work, avoidance, Phase II testing, monitoring or another treatment.
Why survey is normally the starting point
A full excavation before knowing whether a site exists is usually unnecessary and destructive. Phase I can answer whether archaeological deposits are present and can often support an avoidance plan without removing large portions of a site. It also gives the reviewing agency a factual basis for deciding whether additional work is needed.
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“Excavation” is not one uniform activity. Limited excavation may be part of Phase I, while controlled testing and data recovery have different objectives, scales and approvals.
Phase I subsurface tests
A shovel-test probe or similar small test removes a limited column of soil to look for artifacts, features, stratigraphy and buried surfaces. The tests are samples, not a complete excavation of a site. The archaeologist records location, depth, soil layers and contents, then backfills or otherwise secures the test according to the applicable standard.
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Phase II evaluation/testing
When Phase I indicates a potentially significant site, Phase II uses closer-interval testing and larger, more controlled formal units. The goal is a definitive eligibility determination, not simply to collect more artifacts. Work examines:
- Integrity of deposits and soil stratigraphy.
- Site limits and the distribution of materials.
- Features such as hearths, pits, foundations or burials.
- Chronology, function and other information needed to apply National Register criteria.
- Whether construction can avoid the significant portions of the site.
North Carolina guidance describes Phase II units as generally larger and more controlled than Phase I tests. Minnesota guidance similarly treats Phase II as the step that evaluates importance and informs any data-recovery design.
Phase III data recovery and mitigation
Phase III is treatment for an eligible site after the reviewing agency finds that construction will cause an adverse effect and avoidance or preservation is not feasible. Excavation removes deposits and changes the site’s integrity, so it must follow a research design and an agency-approved treatment plan. The plan normally defines research questions, excavation areas, methods, sampling, laboratory work, analysis, reporting, curation and public or tribal commitments. A Memorandum of Agreement may be required under Section 106.
How survey intensity is chosen
There is no nationwide spacing or depth rule. The archaeologist adjusts methods to the jurisdiction, landform, soils, slope, vegetation, fill, previous disturbance and the depth of proposed construction.
An example of jurisdiction-specific spacing
Louisiana standards illustrate how a state may set different intensities. They use 30-meter transects and shovel-test intervals in high-probability areas and 50-meter intervals in low-probability areas, while still requiring low-probability areas to be examined. Tests should reach subsoil or 50 centimeters where applicable, and deeper testing should be considered when buried deposits are possible or the project will disturb deeper soils.
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Those figures are an example of one jurisdiction’s standard, not a nationwide requirement. A project archaeologist must confirm the controlling state, tribal, local or federal standard before fieldwork.
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Road cuts, basements, utility trenches, stormwater facilities, borrow pits and grading can reach deposits that a shallow test would miss. The scope should identify every ground-disturbance area and explain whether deeper probes, augers, cores or mechanical trenching are needed. Do not allow a general contractor to choose test depth or sampling density without the archaeologist and reviewing agency.
When federal law changes the process
Section 106 responsibilities apply to construction and land or resource planning on federal lands, and to actions on non-federal lands when a federal agency provides funding or issues a license, permit or approval. The federal agency is normally the lead for consultation with the State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO), Tribal Historic Preservation Officer (THPO), tribes and other consulting parties.
The agency determines the undertaking’s APE, identification needs, eligibility findings and treatment obligations. A state or local review may apply even when Section 106 does not. Ask the lead agency or SHPO/THPO which standard, report format and consultation path governs before procuring fieldwork.
Archaeological permits on public and Indian lands
On federal or Indian lands, 16 U.S.C. § 470cc requires an application for a permit to excavate or remove archaeological resources. The federal land manager specifies the required information and conditions. National Park Service guidance explains that investigations on federal lands are conducted under an Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) permit stating the authorized research, methods, curation and conditions under which work can be suspended.
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A Phase I walkover may not require the same authorization as excavation, but the land manager and permit terms control. Never begin subsurface work on public or Indian lands until the required permit and treatment approvals are in place.
Can monitoring replace a survey?
Usually not. Monitoring can be appropriate for a known sensitive location, cemetery or narrowly defined area where the agency has approved a monitoring strategy. The archaeologist must be able to see the earthmoving, communicate with operators and stop work when a suspected feature or deposit appears.
Monitoring is a real-time response to a defined risk; it does not reliably identify resources outside the monitored area or deposits that construction does not expose. North Carolina guidance cautions against using monitoring as a primary survey strategy and recommends consultation before adopting it. If a project has not had identification survey, ask the reviewing agency to document why monitoring is sufficient and what its limits are.
Independent reader supportYour contribution helps us test, update, and keep practical guides available for everyone.What to do if construction finds artifacts
Put an unexpected-discovery procedure in the construction contract before mobilization. At minimum, it should identify who can direct a pause, who must be notified, how the location will be protected and how work may resume.
- Stop work in the immediate discovery area without moving artifacts, soil or possible features.
- Secure the location and keep equipment, workers and the public from disturbing it.
- Notify the project archaeologist, construction manager and the agency or SHPO/THPO identified in the plan.
- Have the archaeologist document the find and recommend whether avoidance, testing, monitoring or another treatment is required.
- Follow the jurisdiction’s human-remains procedure immediately if bones or a burial may be present; do not handle or relocate remains.
- Resume earthwork only after the authorized decision-maker gives written or otherwise documented clearance.
Federal regulations, permits and tribal requirements can impose specific discovery deadlines and protection measures. The contract should state those requirements rather than relying on an informal site practice.
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How to procure the right archaeological scope
- Map the complete footprint. Include buildings, grading, utilities, access roads, staging, borrow pits, spoil areas, demolition, tree clearing and stormwater work—not just the building pad.
- Confirm jurisdiction and ownership. Record federal, tribal, state, local and private parcels, plus every federal funding, license, permit or approval connection.
- Ask the lead agency and SHPO/THPO for the applicable standard. Confirm APE definitions, survey intensity, report format, consultation participants and curation expectations.
- Commission Phase I. Require a written recommendation for no further work, avoidance, Phase II, monitoring or another treatment, with maps and stated limitations.
- If Phase II is recommended, require a complete design. The scope should specify unit layout, eligibility criteria, laboratory and curation plans, reporting, consultation and schedule.
- If Phase III is required, obtain approvals before earthwork. Secure the treatment plan, agreement or permit, research questions, data-recovery methods, artifact curation plan and discovery protocols.
- Put protections in construction documents. Include stop-work authority, notification contacts, confidentiality provisions, human-remains procedures and payment or schedule terms for an unexpected discovery.
Choosing a qualified CRM archaeologist
Request documentation of Secretary of the Interior professional qualifications and experience with the project’s region, site types and governing review process. The firm should be able to perform or manage records research, field survey, GIS mapping, laboratory analysis, technical reporting, SHPO/THPO and agency consultation, curation and any mitigation.
A shovel-test probe or soil probe is only a field tool. Buying one or having a crew use one does not satisfy a compliance requirement. The archaeologist must select the method, spacing, depth, recording system and reporting standard, and the agency must accept the resulting work.
Cost and schedule: why a single “average” is misleading
No universally applicable national cost, duration or success-rate figure exists for Phase I surveys. Price and schedule vary with acreage, terrain, vegetation, accessibility, number of parcels, records complexity, required spacing and depth, laboratory work, consultation, seasonal conditions and agency review. Phase II and Phase III add progressively more field, laboratory, analysis, curation and approval work.
Obtain a project-specific proposal that separates records research, field days, subsurface testing, reporting, agency responses, curation and optional Phase II or monitoring tasks. Ask what assumptions would trigger a change order, how weather or access affects the schedule and whether the quote includes revisions required by the reviewing agency. Build time for consultation and report acceptance, not just the days when archaeologists are on site.
Common planning mistakes
- Starting with excavation: A large dig before identification can destroy information and spend money on areas that could have been avoided.
- Surveying only the building pad: Utilities, roads, drainage and staging can create the actual archaeological impact.
- Using a generic spacing rule: Standards differ by jurisdiction and must account for buried deposits and local geomorphology.
- Treating monitoring as universal coverage: A monitor sees only the work area and cannot replace systematic identification without an approved rationale.
- Ignoring federal connections: A private parcel can still require Section 106 review when federal money, licensing, permitting or approval is involved.
- Leaving discoveries out of the contract: Unclear stop-work authority can cause damage, disputes and avoidable delays.
- Hiring without qualification checks: An archaeologist unfamiliar with local site types or agency practice may produce work that must be repeated.
Bottom line for construction managers
Plan for a Phase I identification survey when a project could disturb archaeological resources. Let its documented results determine whether the project can proceed with no further work or avoidance, or whether Phase II evaluation is needed. Reserve Phase III excavation for an eligible site that cannot be avoided and for which the reviewing agency has approved mitigation. Monitoring can control a narrowly defined earthmoving risk, but it is not an automatic substitute for survey. Confirm the governing jurisdiction, permits, consultation path and discovery procedures before construction starts, and re-check agency requirements because standards and contacts can change.
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