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Anti-counterfeiting technology has not moved in a straight line from holograms to digital IDs. It has accumulated layers: physical marks can help inspectors examine an object, machine-readable codes and tags identify it, serialization distinguishes one item from another, and digital signatures can help verify that associated data came from a trusted source and has not been altered. Those layers work together only when a verification system links them sensibly.
What changed—and what did not
The central change is that authentication can now connect a physical product to item-level records and digitally verifiable data. A hologram or UV-reactive mark is a feature on the object; a QR code, barcode, RFID tag, or NFC tag carries or points to identifying information. A serial number can make that identifier unique to one product instance. A digital signature can protect the authenticity and integrity of a record associated with that identifier.
These are different jobs, not interchangeable names for the same technology. A scan may retrieve information without proving the physical product is genuine. A signature can validate data without proving that the object presented is the one described by that data. The system must connect the digital record to the physical item, for example through a security code applied to the object or another appropriate physical authentication element.
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How the layers developed
Physical marks made inspection possible
Traditional security features include holograms, colour-shifting inks, security threads, microprinting, watermarks, and UV-reactive inks. Some are meant to be inspected by eye; others call for special illumination, a tool, or an authorized inspection process. UNICRI’s 2021 overview also includes digital watermarks and copy-detection patterns among authentication elements. A mark can make reproduction harder or give an inspector a useful cue, but the appearance of a mark alone does not establish that an item is authentic.
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Barcodes made identification scannable
Barcodes shifted product identification from reading labels manually to scanning encoded identifiers. GS1’s historical timeline records the first UPC scan in 1974, the adoption of GS1 DataMatrix in 2003, and approval of GS1 QR Code in 2011. GS1 later developed Digital Link approaches that connect QR codes to brand-authorized web information. A code can make identification and access to product information easier, but its visible pattern and encoded data can be copied onto a counterfeit.
RFID and NFC added different ways to read identifiers
RFID and NFC can support identification and authentication workflows without relying solely on a printed barcode. GS1 describes EPC/RFID as a family of standards for identifying items and other entities, with tag types and frequencies suited to different uses. UNICRI’s 2021 overview also discusses RFID and NFC in supply-chain protection. A tag provides a reading method or identifier; the fact that a tag is present is not, by itself, proof of genuineness. GS1 also advises addressing privacy needs when deploying RFID.
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Serialization made records specific to individual items
A product identifier can identify a product type; adding a serial number distinguishes an individual unit from other units of that product. Systems can associate traceability events with that serial number to form an item-level history. If a supposedly unique identifier appears in conflicting places or follows an implausible route, that can signal a copied identifier or suspicious activity worth investigating. GS1’s Digital Signatures guidance explains the principle this way: “a real-world macroscopic object cannot simultaneously be in more than one place at one time”. Conflicting observations are a warning signal, not conclusive proof of counterfeiting.
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GS1’s Digital Signatures application standard supports signed data using established approaches including ISO/IEC 20248, JSON Web Signatures, and XML Digital Signatures. GS1 says the application standard was ratified for publication in the GS1 General Specifications in 2023 and describes workflows in which a consumer can verify signed data with a smartphone. A signature helps a verifier check that the data is associated with a trusted signing party and has not been altered. It does not, on its own, establish that the physical object carrying or referring to the data is genuine.
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What each technology contributes
| Technology | What it contributes | What it does not establish by itself |
|---|---|---|
| Holograms and other physical security marks | A visible or tool-assisted inspection feature on the object; some features are intended for ordinary inspection, others for trained or equipped inspectors. | That the mark is genuine, or that a product is authentic simply because the mark is present. |
| Barcode or QR code | A machine-readable identifier or route to related information; the code may identify a product type or, when designed for it, an individual unit. | That the code has not been copied or placed on a different object. |
| RFID or NFC tag | An additional way to identify or read information associated with an item. | That a tag is genuine or that the tagged item is authorized, without a verification process behind it. |
| Serial number and traceability events | A distinct identifier for an individual product instance and a way to associate events with that unit. | That every recorded event is accurate or that a suspicious duplicate observation proves counterfeiting. |
| Digitally signed data | A way to verify data integrity and its association with a trusted signing party. | That the physical item being checked is the one represented by the signed record unless the system links them. |
GS1 notes that physical security markings can be used as additional authentication factors alongside digitally signed data. In a layered design, an item-level identifier points to the unit’s record, a signature helps protect that record, and an appropriate physical feature helps connect the record to the object under inspection.
How to read the phrase “digital ID” in this context
Here, a digital ID means an identifier or record associated with a product, not a government credential that establishes a person’s identity. NIST Special Publication 800-63 Revision 4 covers identity proofing, authentication, and federation for digital identity systems. Those personal-identity functions are separate from identifying and verifying goods, even though the terminology overlaps.
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Why standards and interoperability matter
Anti-counterfeiting systems may involve manufacturers, distributors, retailers, inspectors, and consumers using different equipment and databases. A code that works only in one closed system can limit who can verify a product or how information can be shared. Standards provide guidance for making identifiers, physical representations, authentication elements, and verification processes work together; they do not show that every product, sector, or country has implemented the same system.
- ISO 22378:2022 gives recommendations for identification and authentication systems, including identifier management and verification, physical representation, participant due diligence, and the relationship between identifiers and authentication elements.
- ISO 22381:2018 provides guidance on interoperability between independently functioning product-identification and authentication systems. ISO reports that this edition was reviewed and confirmed in 2024 and remains current.
- GS1 Digital Signatures describes signed-data options and consumer smartphone verification workflows within the GS1 standards context.
GS1’s historical timeline says more than 1 billion products carried GS1 barcodes in 2023. It also describes an industry ambition for retail systems around the world to be able to read 2D barcodes by the end of 2027; that target is not evidence that the milestone has already been achieved. Neither figure establishes how many products use digital signatures or how much counterfeiting any technology prevents.
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Choosing a useful combination
There is no universally best component. A sensible design depends on the item, the likely threat, the supply chain, who needs to verify it, and what verification process can be maintained. A consumer-facing scan may prioritize easy access to information; a controlled supply chain may rely on item-level records and authorized readers; a high-risk product may combine those tools with physical features that can be inspected.
- Decide what needs to be verified. Is the goal to inspect a physical feature, identify a product, distinguish one unit, check record integrity, or review a product’s traceability history?
- Choose how the physical item connects to its record. A copied code can point to valid information while appearing on the wrong object. Consider whether a physical authentication element or another suitable binding method is needed.
- Define who verifies and how. A feature readable by a trained inspector differs from a code a consumer can scan. Set out the expected reader, equipment, and steps for interpreting a result.
- Plan for shared systems and governance. Interoperability, privacy—especially for RFID—implementation cost, and reliable management of identifiers and signing parties all affect whether a layered scheme can work in practice.
GS1 describes digital signatures as one tool among several in anti-counterfeiting. The standards describe system components and recommendations, not a controlled head-to-head trial or a guarantee that a particular combination will prevent counterfeiting.
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