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You can detect a possible Solana sandwich from public transaction data by tracing a target swap, checking for an earlier trade that worsened its execution price, and looking for a later trade that reverses the same trader’s exposure at a net gain. Treat the result as a candidate sandwich, not proof of intent or of Jito bundle membership: the final ledger does not record which transactions were submitted together in a Jito bundle.
What counts as a Solana sandwich?
A sandwich is a pattern in which a trader acts before a target swap, moving the execution price against that swap, then acts afterward to unwind or reverse the position and realize a gain. The familiar shape is three transactions: a front-run trade, the target trade, and a back-run trade.
That shape is a starting point, not a complete definition. A nearby trade is not enough: ordinary arbitrage and other trading can look similar. To support a sandwich label, connect the trades to the target’s adverse price impact and show that the trader later reversed exposure and gained. More complex activity can involve intervening transactions, split trades, linked accounts, or transactions across blocks.
How to inspect a suspected victim swap
Start with one swap transaction and build the evidence around it. A transaction’s position immediately before or after the target is a clue, not proof; examine its instructions, token balance changes, pool activity, and related transactions.
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- Select the candidate target. Record its signature, slot, and transaction details from a Solana transaction-history or RPC source with sufficient historical coverage.
- Decode what the target traded. Read the instructions and token balance changes to identify the traded mints, direction, and actual amounts in and out. For routed swaps, follow each leg rather than treating the route as a single pool interaction.
- Inspect nearby activity in the same pool or route. Examine transactions immediately before and after the target, then widen the time and slot window. Look for trades in the same mints and pool state changes that could affect the target’s execution.
- Test for adverse price impact. Compare the price or exchange rate before the suspected earlier trade with the rate available to the target. Determine whether that earlier trade worsened the target’s execution, rather than merely occurring nearby.
- Trace the suspected trader’s position. Compare signer identities, token transfers, balance deltas, and pool activity across the earlier and later trades. Check whether the later activity reverses the exposure and produces a net gain after accounting for the relevant amounts.
- Record the evidence and limits. State the transactions and criteria that support your label, how you linked the trader, the data source and coverage used, and any uncertainty. If you add bundle information, identify it separately from ledger evidence.
For a defensible report, preserve the observed transaction IDs, slot range, mint addresses, amount and price calculations, and the rules used to include or exclude a candidate. This makes it possible for another analyst to distinguish an evidence-backed pattern from a label based only on transaction order.
What a published Jito-bundle heuristic checks
Gerzon, Weintraub, In, Mislove, and Nita-Rotaru’s 2025 study, Quantifying the Threat of Sandwiching MEV on Jito, used a five-part heuristic for candidate sandwiches in Jito bundles. In paraphrase, it required:
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- The first and third relevant transactions to share attacker account A, while the middle transaction belonged to a different account, B.
- All three transactions to trade the same minted coins.
- A’s first trade to worsen the exchange rate for B’s middle trade.
- A to gain currency without payment, or to end with a net gain in the coin it sold.
- Exclusion of a bundle whose final transaction only tipped a Jito validator.
This is a study-specific detection rule, not a universal definition. The authors note that extra unrelated instructions or trades, multiple sandwiches in one bundle, and other disguises can evade it. A detector that requires a simple triplet and one signer can miss wider patterns or activity distributed among linked accounts.
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Which data source can establish which facts?
Use each source for the claim it can actually support. A final-ledger transaction pattern can support a transaction-level candidate label, but it cannot show that transactions were submitted together in a Jito bundle.
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| Data source | What it can support | What it cannot establish by itself | Important limitation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Final ledger data | Included transactions, their order and on-chain effects, decoded swaps, and balance changes. | Original submission path, intent, or Jito bundle membership. | Adjacency is only a clue; wider, cross-block, split, or disguised patterns require broader analysis. |
| RPC transaction history | Retrieval and analysis of transaction details over the history exposed by the RPC source. | Bundle membership unless separate bundle metadata is added. | Archive depth, rate limits, and data gaps depend on the source; state the coverage actually used. |
| Jito Explorer/API bundle metadata | Bundle IDs and transaction IDs associated with bundles, when obtained from the relevant Jito data interface. | Trader intent or a particular private submission route. | The 2025 study used an undocumented public-facing Explorer API; availability, reproducibility, and historical coverage may be limited. |
Bundle metadata is an additional field, not a property recoverable from final-ledger order alone. The 2025 study collected bundle IDs and included transaction IDs through Jito Explorer’s public-facing undocumented API, then requested transaction details for selected bundles. If you use a similar source, report how you obtained the metadata and what period it covers.
How broad should a detector be?
A narrow detector is easier to reproduce but will miss some variants. A wider detector can find more candidates, but linking activity across transactions and accounts creates more room for false positives. Document the choices rather than presenting one heuristic as comprehensive.
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| Detection choice | Narrow approach | Broader approach | Trade-off to disclose |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pattern width | Adjacent three-transaction sequence in one block. | Wider windows, intervening activity, split trades, and cross-block patterns. | Wider searches can capture more variants but require stronger evidence that transactions belong to one pattern. |
| Identity linkage | One signer appears on the suspected first and third trades. | Use transfers and balance flows to assess whether separate accounts may be linked. | Signer reuse is observable; common control of different accounts is an inference and should be labeled accordingly. |
| Evidence threshold | Pattern and transaction order match a rule. | Demonstrate adverse price impact on the target and a net gain after the later trade. | Higher thresholds improve the evidentiary basis for a label but may exclude cases where the available data cannot show the full position. |
| Coverage and reproducibility | Use the available ledger or RPC history. | Add bundle metadata and disclose retrieval details, archive scope, and collection gaps. | Undocumented interfaces, rate limits, and incomplete archives affect whether another analyst can reproduce the same candidate set. |
What published Solana counts do—and do not—mean
Counts from different studies are not directly comparable unless their populations, time windows, and detection rules match.
- Gerzon and coauthors reported 521,903 candidate Jito bundle sandwiches in their 2025 study’s collection from February 9 to June 9, 2025. The collection had interruptions, and the count reflects that study’s criteria and bundle-data access—not a current daily rate or an ecosystem-wide total. The authors treat measured prevalence and harm as lower bounds because cases can be missed.
- The same study reported that 95% of successive pairs of bundle-data requests overlapped, which the authors used as a collection-completeness check. That overlap does not show that the dataset was complete; the authors also describe interruptions and possible missed bundles.
- Heimbach, Solmaz, Öz, and Ferreira Torres reported 28.0 million protected-order-flow sandwich attacks on Solana in a preprint submitted September 23, 2026, for a three-year study. This is the authors’ estimate under a broader scope and different methodology, including attacks beyond a simple adjacent triplet; it is not an updated version of the Jito-specific 2025 count.
What public data cannot prove
Even a strong transaction-level pattern does not independently reveal what a trader saw before inclusion, whether a transaction arrived through a private route, or the submitter’s intent. The final ledger also does not identify original Jito bundle membership. Report findings as detected candidates under stated criteria, and keep on-chain facts separate from off-chain metadata and analytical inference.
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Solana’s official MEV-protection guide defines the ordering-based mechanism this way: “A sandwich attack occurs when a searcher detects your pending swap and exploits transaction ordering.” The guide also says transactions are forwarded to upcoming leaders rather than held in a shared public mempool, and that unprocessed transactions expire after roughly 150 blocks (about one minute). Those details describe the documented transaction path; they do not mean sandwiching cannot occur.
How DontFront relates to detection
Jito’s DontFront mechanism is relevant context, not a substitute for evidence analysis. A transaction can use a valid public key prefixed with jitodontfront; Jito’s block engine applies ordering constraints requiring a bundle containing that transaction to place it first. Jito bundles can contain up to five transactions and, when accepted, execute sequentially and atomically.
Solana’s official guide quotes Jito’s warning: “This feature may help reduce sandwich attacks but is not guaranteed to do so and is not a solution for all variations in transaction ordering, including any ordering conducted by third parties.” DontFront therefore should not be treated as a universal guarantee against every ordering path.
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